Endocrinology
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Endocrinologist | |
Glossary | Glossary of medicine |
---|
Endocrinology (from
The endocrine system consists of several
The endocrine system
In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling (see below), they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also
Hormones
Griffin and Ojeda identify three different classes of hormones based on their chemical composition:[7]
Amines
Amines, such as
Peptide and protein
Steroid
As a profession
Occupation | |
---|---|
Names | Doctor, Medical specialist |
Occupation type | Specialty |
Activity sectors | Medicine |
Description | |
Education required |
|
Fields of employment | Hospitals, Clinics |
Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the
An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases).
Work
The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.[citation needed]
The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.
A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not.
Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are
Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in
Training
Endocrinologists are specialists of
Diseases and medicine
Diseases
- See main article at Endocrine diseases
Endocrinology also involves the study of the diseases of the endocrine system. These diseases may relate to too little or too much secretion of a hormone, too little or too much action of a hormone, or problems with receiving the hormone.
Societies and organisations
Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public.
In North America the principal professional organizations of endocrinologists include The Endocrine Society,
In Europe, the European Society of Endocrinology (ESE) and the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology (ESPE) are the main organisations representing professionals in the fields of adult and paediatric endocrinology, respectively.
In the United Kingdom, the Society for Endocrinology[15] and the British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes[16] are the main professional organisations.
The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology[17] is the largest international professional association dedicated solely to paediatric endocrinology. There are numerous similar associations around the world.
History
The earliest study of endocrinology began in China.[18] The Chinese were isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and using them for medicinal purposes by 200 BC.[18] They used many complex methods, such as sublimation of steroid hormones.[18] Another method specified by Chinese texts—the earliest dating to 1110—specified the use of saponin (from the beans of Gleditsia sinensis) to extract hormones, but gypsum (containing calcium sulfate) was also known to have been used.[18]
Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al.,[19] and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century.
In 1849, Arnold Berthold noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour.[20] He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and he concluded (erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that "conditioned" the blood that, in turn, acted on the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in 1935.[21]
In 1902 William Bayliss and Ernest Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two.[26] The same response could be produced by injecting extract of jejunum mucosa into the jugular vein, showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance "secretin" and coined the term hormone for chemicals that act in this way.
Recent work in endocrinology focuses on the molecular mechanisms responsible for triggering the effects of hormones. The first example of such work being done was in 1962 by Earl Sutherland. Sutherland investigated whether hormones enter cells to evoke action, or stayed outside of cells. He studied norepinephrine, which acts on the liver to convert glycogen into glucose via the activation of the phosphorylase enzyme. He homogenized the liver into a membrane fraction and soluble fraction (phosphorylase is soluble), added norepinephrine to the membrane fraction, extracted its soluble products, and added them to the first soluble fraction. Phosphorylase activated, indicating that norepinephrine's target receptor was on the cell membrane, not located intracellularly. He later identified the compound as cyclic AMP (cAMP) and with his discovery created the concept of second-messenger-mediated pathways. He, like Loewi, won the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work in endocrinology.[29]
See also
- Comparative endocrinology
- Endocrine disease
- Hormone
- Hormone replacement therapy
- Neuroendocrinology
- Pediatric endocrinology
- Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
- Wildlife endocrinology
- List of instruments used in endocrinology
References
- ISSN 2957-6067.
- ^ "Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Specialty Description". American Medical Association. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-323-04318-2, retrieved 2023-11-15
- ^ Molnar, Charles; Gair, Jane (2015-05-14). "11.4 Endocrine System".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "How the Pill Works | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
- ISBN 978-1-85996-252-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-513541-1.
- S2CID 31150531.
- S2CID 23454526.
- ^ "Home - Endocrine Society". www.endo-society.org.
- ^ "American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists".
- ^ "American Diabetes Association". American Diabetes Association.
- ^ "Pediatric Endocrine Society". www.lwpes.org.
- ^ "American Thyroid Association - ATA". www.thyroid.org.
- ^ "Society for Endocrinology - A world-leading authority on hormones". www.endocrinology.org.
- ^ "BSPED - Home". www.bsped.org.uk.
- ^ "ESPE - European Society of Paediatric Endocrinology - Improving the clinical care of children and adolescents with endocrine conditions". www.eurospe.org.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-233-00202-6.
- PMID 11176375.
- ^ Berthold AA (1849). "Transplantation der Hoden". Arch. Anat. Physiol. Wiss. Med. 16: 42–6.
- .
- Who Named It?
- Who Named It?
- PMID 9771526.
- PMID 11443143.
- PMID 16992627.
- PMID 2657840.
- ^ Loewi, O. Uebertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. Pfluger's Arch. ges Physiol. 1921;189:239-42.
- PMID 4339614.
Anatomy of the endocrine system | |||||
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Pituitary gland |
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Thyroid | |||||
Parathyroid gland | |||||
Adrenal gland |
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Gonads | |||||
Islets of pancreas | |||||
Pineal gland | |||||
Other |
Physiology of the endocrine system | |
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Regulatory systems | |
Metabolism | |
Fields | |
Other |
Test and procedures involving the endocrine system | |
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Pancreas | |
Pituitary | |
Thyroid | |
Adrenal gland | |
Pineal gland |
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Abnormal blood glucose levels | ||
Insulin disorders | ||
Other pancreatic disorders and conditions |
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Hyperlipidemia | |||||
Hypolipoproteinemia |
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Lipodystrophy | |||||
Other |
Gonadotropin | |
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CRH | |
Vasopressin |
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General |
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Hyperpituitarism |
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Hypopituitarism |
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Hypothyroidism |
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Hyperthyroidism |
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Thyroiditis |
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Enlargement |
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Hyperfunction |
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Hypofunction |
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Ovarian |
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Testicular |
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General |
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Growth and height disorder due to endocrine malfunction | |
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Disorders involving multiple endocrine glands | |
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Protein-energy malnutrition | |||||
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Vitamin deficiency |
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Mineral deficiency | |||||
Growth | |||||
General |