History of human rights

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Rights
Theoretical distinctions
Human rights
Rights by beneficiary
Other groups of rights

While belief in the sanctity of human life has ancient precedents in many religions of the world, the foundations of modern

natural rights, which had a basis in natural law, lay at the core of the American and French Revolutions which occurred toward the end of that century, but the idea of human rights came about later. Democratic evolution through the nineteenth century paved the way for the advent of universal suffrage in the twentieth century. Two world wars led to the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
.

The

Soviet bloc emerged in the 1970s along with workers' rights movements in the West. The movements quickly jelled as social activism and political rhetoric in many nations put human rights high on the world agenda.[1] By the 21st century, historian Samuel Moyn has argued, the human rights movement expanded beyond its original anti-totalitarianism to include numerous causes involving humanitarianism and social and economic development in the Developing World.[2]

The history of human rights has been complex. Many established rights for instance would be replaced by other systems which deviate from their original western design. Stable institutions may be uprooted such as in cases of conflict such as war and terrorism or a change in culture.[3]

Ancient and pre-modern eras

Some notions of

secular social contract between the rulers and the ruled, ancient traditions derived similar conclusions from notions of divine law, and, in Hellenistic philosophy, natural law. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of human rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship, which did not emerge until the past few hundred years.[4] Nonetheless, relevant examples exist in the Ancient and pre-modern eras, although Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights.[5]

Ancient West Asia

An inscription of the Code of Hammurabi

The reforms of

men's rights, children's rights and slave rights
.

Africa

The

individual rights, suppressed imprisonment for debt, and reformed laws relating to the transferral of property.[9]

Antiquity

Further information:
The Golden Rule, Cyrus Cylinder, and Edicts of Ashoka
The Cyrus Cylinder of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire

Many historians suggest that the

Babylonian Captivity. Additionally it stated the freedom to practice one's faith without persecution and forced conversions.[13][14] According to art historian Neil MacGregor, the proclamation of full religious freedoms in Babylon and elsewhere in the Persian empire was an important inspiration for human rights by prominent thinkers millennia later, especially in the United States.[15]

In opposition to the above viewpoint, the interpretation of the Cylinder as a "

United Nations Headquarters
.

Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early poleis of ancient Greece, where all free citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.[19]

The Twelve Tables Law established the principle "Privilegia ne irroganto", which literally means "privileges shall not be imposed".

The

Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 268 to 232 BCE, established the largest empire in South Asia. Following the reportedly destructive Kalinga War, Ashoka adopted Buddhism and abandoned an expansionist policy in favor of humanitarian reforms. The Edicts of Ashoka were erected throughout his empire, containing the 'Law of Piety'.[20] These laws prohibited religious discrimination, and cruelty against both humans and animals.[21] The Edicts emphasize the importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The slaughter or capture of prisoners of war was also condemned by Ashoka.[22] Some sources claim that slavery was also non-existent in ancient India.[23] The Greek records say there is absence of slavery during the rule of Sandrocottus.[24]

In ancient Rome an ius gentium or jus gentium was a right which a citizen was due simply by dint of his citizenship.[25] The concept of a Roman ius is a precursor to a right as conceived in the Western European tradition. The word "justice" is derived from ius. Human rights legislation in the Roman Empire included the introduction of the presumption of innocence by Emperor Antoninus Pius[26] and the Edict of Milan by Emperor Constantine the Great establishing complete freedom of religion.[27]

The coining of the phrase 'Human rights' can be attributed to Tertullian in his letter To Scapula wherein he wrote about the religious freedom in Roman Empire.[28][29] He equated "fundamental human rights" as a "privilege of nature" in this letter.

Early Islamic caliphate

Main articles:
Early reforms under Islam
See also:
Al-Risalah al-Huquq
Further information: Constitution of Medina and Sharia

Historians generally agree that

Mosaic laws and customs of the time into his divine revelations.[38]

The

Khazraj within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community-the Ummah.[41]

If the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual.[42] Lewis states that Islam brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching consequences. "One of these was the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances," Lewis continues. The position of the Arabian slave was "enormously improved": the Arabian slave "was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human being with a certain religious and hence a social status and with certain quasi-legal rights."[43]

William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women's rights and improved things considerably. Watt explains: "At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible—they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons." Muhammad, however, by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards."[48] Haddad and Esposito state that "Muhammad granted women rights and privileges in the sphere of family life, marriage, education, and economic endeavors, rights that help improve women's status in society."[49] However, other writers have argued that women before Islam were more liberated drawing most often on the first marriage of Muhammad and that of Muhammad's parents, but also on other points such as worship of female idols at Mecca.[50]

Sociologist

Robert Bellah (Beyond belief) argues that Islam in its 7th-century origins was, for its time and place, "remarkably modern...in the high degree of commitment, involvement, and participation expected from the rank-and-file members of the community." This is because, he argues, that Islam emphasized the equality of all Muslims, where leadership positions were open to all. Dale Eickelman writes that Bellah suggests "the early Islamic community placed a particular value on individuals, as opposed to collective or group responsibility."[51]

Early

prisoners of war under the early Caliphate are considered precursors to international humanitarian law. The many requirements on how prisoners of war should be treated included, for example, providing shelter, food and clothing, respecting their cultures, and preventing any acts of execution, rape or revenge. Some of these principles were not codified in Western international law until modern times.[52] Islamic law under the early Caliphate institutionalised humanitarian limitations on military conduct, including attempts to limit the severity of war, guidelines for ceasing hostilities, distinguishing between civilians and combatants, preventing unnecessary destruction, and caring for the sick and wounded.[53]

Middle Ages

Magna Carta was written in 1215.

The concept of human rights in the medieval ages built on the natural law tradition. This tradition was heavily influenced by the writings of St Paul's early Christian thinkers such as St Hilary of Poitiers, St Ambrose, and St Augustine.[54] Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally based on wisdom and conscience, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals, and if people are obligated to obey laws that are unjust.[55]

This medieval tradition became prominent and influenced the

United States Constitution, and the 1791 United States Bill of Rights.[56]

Magna Carta was originally written because of disagreements between

King John and the English barons about the rights of the King. Magna Carta required the King to renounce certain rights, respect certain legal procedures and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered—most notably the writ of habeas corpus
, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment.

For modern times, the most enduring legacy of Magna Carta is considered the right of habeas corpus. This right arises from what are now known as clauses 36, 38, 39, and 40 of the 1215 Magna Carta. Magna Carta also included the right to due process:

No Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed; nor will We not pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the Land. We will sell to no man, we will not deny or defer to any man either Justice or Right.

— Clause XXIX of Magna Carta

The

Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination and hate speech.[57]

At the

Pawel Wlodkowic delivered an address from his Tractatus de potestate papae et imperatoris respectu infidelium ("Treatise on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor Respecting Infidels") in which he advocated the peaceful coexistence of Christians and pagans, making him a precursor of religious tolerance in Europe.[58]

Early modern period and modern foundations

United States Declaration of Independence ratified by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776
Main articles:
Natural and legal rights and Natural law

Age of Discovery, early modern period and Age of Enlightenment

The conquest of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries by Spain, during the

wages; suitable accommodations; and rest/vacation
, among others.

Several 17th- and 18th-century European philosophers, most notably

humans were creations of God, and his ideas were important in the development of the modern notion of rights. Lockean natural rights did not rely on citizenship nor any law of the state, nor were they necessarily limited to one particular ethnic, cultural or religious group. Around the same time, in 1689, the English Bill of Rights was created which asserted some basic human rights,[61] most famously freedom from cruel and unusual punishment.[62]

In the 1700s, the novel became a popular form of entertainment. Popular novels, such as

Julie, or the New Heloise by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded by Samuel Richardson, laid a foundation for popular acceptance of human rights by making readers empathize with characters unlike themselves.[63][64]

Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century in the United States (1776) and in France (1789). The

freedom of speech and the right against self-incrimination. Similarly, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
defines a set of individual and collective rights of the people. These are, in the document, held to be universal—not only to French citizens but to all men without exception.

19th century to World War I

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789

Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and Hegel expanded on the theme of universality during the 18th and 19th centuries.

In 1831

The Liberator newspaper that he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights"[65] so the term human rights may have come into use sometime between Paine's The Rights of Man and Garrison's publication. In 1849, a contemporary, Henry David Thoreau, wrote about human rights in his treatise On the Duty of Civil Disobedience which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers. United States Supreme Court Justice David Davis, in his 1867 opinion for Ex parte Milligan, wrote: "By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people."[66]

Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the

Global South succeeded in gaining many countries independence from Western colonialism, one of the most influential being Mahatma Gandhi's leadership of the Indian independence movement. Movements by ethnic and religious minorities for racial and religious equality succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the American civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities which have occurred around the world.[citation needed
]

The foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of international humanitarian law, to be further developed following the two World Wars.

Auguries of United Nations human rights law have been located in the late-19th century movement to suppress and abolish slavery across the world as well as in the conventional protection of minorities from religious, racial, and national discrimination within states under the auspices of unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral treaty law, first found in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin.[67][68]

Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Exhortation

Vatican II
) would release apostolic exhortations and encyclicals on topics that touched on human rights more and more frequently.

The proposition that a state's agents could be held criminally responsible for atrocities perpetrated against the state's own nationals was advanced by the British, French, and Russian governments in May 1915 in response to Turkey's genocide of Armenians.[69][70]

Between World War I and World War II

The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The League of Nations had mandates to support many of the former colonies of the Western European colonial powers during their transition from colony to independent state.

Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and now part of United Nations, the International Labour Organization also had a mandate to promote and safeguard certain of the rights later included in the UDHR:

the primary goal of the ILO today is to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity.

— Report by the Director General for the International Labour Conference 87th Session

Also of particular note is the ILO's 1919 convention protecting women from pregnancy discrimination in employment, the 1921 Right of Association (Agriculture) Convention, and the 1930 Forced Labour Convention.

Modern human rights movement

Main article: Human rights

After World War II

Rights in war and the extension of the Geneva Conventions

Original Geneva Convention in 1864
Progression of Geneva Conventions from 1864 to 1949
Main articles: International humanitarian law and Geneva Conventions
See also:
Prisoner rights in Islam

The Geneva Conventions came into being between 1864 and 1949 as a result of efforts by

laws of war
. Despite first being framed before World War II, the conventions were revised as a result of World War II and readopted by the international community in 1949.

The Geneva Conventions are:

In addition, there are three additional amendment protocols to the Geneva Convention:

  • Protocol I (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts.
  • Protocol II (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts.
  • Protocol III (2005): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem.

All four conventions were last revised and ratified in 1949, based on previous revisions and partly on some of the 1907 Hague Conventions. Later, conferences have added provisions prohibiting certain methods of warfare and addressing issues of civil wars. Nearly all 200 countries of the world are "signatory" nations, in that they have ratified these conventions. The International Committee of the Red Cross is the controlling body of the Geneva conventions.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Main article: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
"It is not a treaty... [In the future, it] may well become the international Magna Carta."[74] Eleanor Roosevelt with the text of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1949.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly[75] in 1948, partly in response to the barbarism of World War II. The Declaration urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world". It was declared by the United Nations General Assembly to be a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets forth, for the first time in history, fundamental human rights to be universally protected.[76]

...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and

inalienable rights
of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world

— Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with

Rene Cassin were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized.[77] Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:[77]

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law.

— Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948

Some of the Declaration was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi.[78] The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights[77][79] was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the Soviet Bloc, Apartheid South Africa and Saudi Arabia), this principle was later subject to significant challenges.[79]

European Convention on Human Rights

The UN declaration was succeeded by the European Convention on Human Rights, a binding convention drafted by the Council of Europe in 1950 and signed by 47 countries.[80] The Convention has 18 articles, 13 of which are rights guaranteed under it:[81]

The other five articles address enforcement of the rights enumerated in the convention and special circumstances in which these rights can be restricted. The United Kingdom, one of the signatories of the ECHR, later passed the Human Rights Act 1998 enshrining these rights in UK law and giving the judiciary the ability to enforce them under UK law.

Late 20th century

We have already found a high degree of personal liberty, and we are now struggling to enhance equality of opportunity. Our commitment to human rights must be absolute, our laws fair, our natural beauty preserved; the powerful must not persecute the weak, and human dignity must be enhanced.

Jimmy Carter Inaugural Address.[82]

According to historian Samuel Moyn the next major landmark in human rights happened in the 1970s.[83] Human rights were included in point VII of the Helsinki Accords, which was signed in 1975 by thirty-five states, including the United States, Canada, and all European states except Albania and Andorra.

During his inaugural speech in 1977, the 39th

Camp David accord peace treaty would himself win the Nobel Peace Prize in 2002 "for his decades of untiring effort to find peaceful solutions to international conflicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to promote economic and social development".[86]

21st century

Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centred around achieving greater economic and political freedom.[87] In July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution in which it is recognized that everyone on the planet has a right to a healthy environment. It called on states to step up efforts to ensure their people have access to a "clean, healthy and sustainable environment."[88]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Harvard University Press, 2010)
  2. ^ Scott McLemee, "The Last Utopia" Inside Higher Education Dec. 8, 2010 online Archived 2020-10-04 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ISBN 978-8170247272
    .
  4. ^ Samuel Moyn, August 30-edition of September 6, 2010, The Nation, Human Rights in History: Human rights emerged not in the 1940s but the 1970s, and on the ruins of prior dreams Archived 2015-04-28 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved August 14, 2014
  5. ^ Michael Freeman (2002). Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach. pp. 15–17.
  6. ^
    ISBN 978-0521521567
    .
  7. ISBN 978-1558615656
    .
  8. ^ "ancient Egypt | Civilization, Geography, & History". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2015-06-20. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
  9. ^ a b "Egyptian law". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2021-02-12. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
  10. ^ "The First Global Statement of the Inherent Dignity and Equality". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2010-12-16. Retrieved 2010-09-13.
  11. ISBN 081221854X
    .
  12. ISBN 978-0719049231
    .
  13. S2CID 170508879
    .
  14. ISSN 0081-7554
    .
  15. ^ MacGregor, Neil (24 February 2013). "A 2,600-year-old icon of freedom comes to the United States". CNN. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  16. ^ Kuhrt (1983), pp. 83–97
  17. ^ Wiesehöfer (1999), pp. 55–68
  18. ^ Daniel, p. 39
  19. SSRN 1010489. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
    )
  20. ISSN 1607-5889. Archived
    from the original on 2018-11-16. Retrieved 11 August 2018.
  21. ^ "BRIA 14 4 b The Edicts of Asoka – Constitutional Rights Foundation". www.crf-usa.org. Archived from the original on 2020-12-18. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
  22. ^ Amartya Sen (1997)
  23. Helots
    for slaves, who perform the duties of slaves; but the Indians have no slaves at all, much less is any Indian a whore."
  24. ^ Slave-owning societies Archived 2007-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica
  25. ^ "jus gentium – Roman law". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2021-12-24. Retrieved 2021-12-24.
  26. ^ "Ei incumbit probatio qui". Law Times Journal. 29 September 2019. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  27. ^ "What Was the Edict of Milan?". World Atlas. 22 May 2018. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  28. ISBN 978-3849621599. Archived
    from the original on 2021-08-27. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  29. ^ To Scapula, Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry
  30. ^ Alexander (1998), p. 452
  31. ^ a b c Lewis, Bernard (January 21, 1998). "Islamic Revolution". The New York Review of Books.
  32. ^ Watt (1974), p. 234
  33. ^ Robinson (2004) p. 21
  34. ^ Haddad, Esposito (1998), p. 98
  35. ^ "Ak̲h̲lāḳ", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
  36. ^ Joseph, Najmabadi (2007). Chapter: p. 293. Gallagher, Nancy. Infanticide and Abandonment of Female Children
  37. ^ a b c d e Esposito (2005) p. 79
  38. ^ Ahmed I. (1996). Western and Muslim Perceptions of Universal Human Rights Archived 2016-04-18 at the Wayback Machine. Afrika Focus.
  39. ^ See:
    • Firestone (1999) p. 118;
    • "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online
  40. ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p. 4.
  41. ^ R. B. Serjeant, The Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called "Constitution of Medina". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 41, No. 1. 1978), p. 4.
  42. ^ Maududi (1967), Introduction of Ad-Dahr, "Period of revelation", p. 159
  43. ^ Lewis (1994) chapter 1 Archived 2001-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ Jones, Lindsay. p. 6224
  45. ^ a b Esposito (2004), p. 339
  46. ^ a b Khadduri (1978)
  47. ^ Schimmel (1992) p. 65
  48. ^ Maan, McIntosh (1999)
  49. ^ Haddad, Esposito (1998) p. 163
  50. ISBN 041512347X). Routledge: 2003, pp. 77–78
    .
  51. ^ McAuliffe (2005) vol. 5, pp. 66–76. “Social Sciences and the Qur’an”
  52. ISBN 978-9004203969
    .
  53. ISBN 978-1784716585
    .
  54. ^ Carlyle, A. J. (1903). A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West. Vol. 1. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 83. Archived from the original on 2016-06-08.
  55. ^ "Augustine on Law and Order — Lawexplores.com".
  56. ISBN 978-1116447477
    .
  57. ^ Isaac Lewin, The Jewish community in Poland, Philosophical Library, the University of Michigan, 1985 p.19
  58. ^ "The Right of Infidels to Protect Their Goods from the Perspective of the 15th Century Polish School of Ius gentium". Retrieved 12 April 2020.[permanent dead link]
  59. ^ Macías, Francisco (2012-12-27). "The Laws of Burgos: 500 Years of Human Rights | In Custodia Legis: Law Librarians of Congress". blogs.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 2018-01-23. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
  60. ^ Tuckness, Alex (2020). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2022-03-07. Retrieved 2022-04-03 – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  61. ^ Lind, Josh (2023-06-11). "What are the basic human rights?". Global Faq. Retrieved 2023-06-11.
  62. ^ "Britain's unwritten constitution". British Library. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015. The key landmark is the Bill of Rights (1689), which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown ... providing for the regular meeting of Parliament, free elections to the Commons, free speech in parliamentary debates, and some basic human rights, most famously freedom from 'cruel or unusual punishment'.
  63. ISBN 978-0393060959
    .
  64. ^ Slaughter, Joseph R. (2007). Human Rights, Inc.:The World Novel, Narrative Form, and International Law. Fordham University Press.
  65. ^ Mayer (2000) p. 110
  66. ^ "Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 119. (full text)" (PDF). December 1866. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-03-07. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  67. ^ Oppenheim, Lassa (1905). International Law, A Treatise, Vol. I, Peace. London: Longmans, Green, and Company. pp. 343, 346–347.
  68. ^ Jenny S. Martinez similarly asserts in The Slave Trade and the Origins of International Human Rights Law (Oxford University Press, 2012) that the system of "mixed commissions" set up following the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807 evolved into the international criminal justice system existing today. Crucially, the abolition of slavery, as such, was not called for by international agreement between High Contracting Parties until the drafting of the 1926 Slavery Convention, however.
  69. ^ Schabas, William A. (2021). The Customary International Law of Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford U.P. pp. 13–14.
  70. ^ "Stern warning issued to Turkey". The New York Times. May 25, 1915. p. 14. "In warning the members of the Turkish Government and their agents that they will be held to personal responsibility for Armenian massacres, Great Britain, France, and Russia have taken an unusual course, but one which is justified and reasonable...The slaughters that have recently taken place, like the many in other years, are not the work of an incorporeal and unpunishable something that rules in Turkey. They are ordered or permitted by individual men whose identity is known or can be determined, and they should incur the ordinary penalties for murder if they can be caught and convicted."
  71. ^ "Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field. Geneva, 6 July 1906". International Committee of the Red Cross. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
  72. ^ "1949 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field". Archived from the original on 2014-02-21. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
  73. ISBN 978-0415341516
    .
  74. ^ Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly Archived 2017-06-22 at the Wayback Machine 10 December 1948 in Paris, France
  75. ^ (A/RES/217, 1948-12-10 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris)
  76. ^ "The Universal Declaration". Human Rights Education. Archived from the original on 2022-02-17. Retrieved 2022-02-17.
  77. ^ a b c d Glendon, Mary Ann (July 2004). "The Rule of Law in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights. 2 (5). Archived from the original on 2008-05-04.
  78. ^ Glendon (2001)
  79. ^ a b Ball, Olivia; Gready, Paul (2006) p. 34 No-nonsense Guide to Human Rights. New Internationalist Publications Ltd
  80. doi:10.1093/ejil/cht063
    .
  81. ISBN 978-0956982070
    .
  82. ^ Carter, Jimmy (January 20, 1977). "Jimmy Carter Inaugural Address". Archived from the original on December 16, 2008. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
  83. ^ Moyn, Samuel (August 30 – September 6, 2010). "Human Rights in History". The Nation. Archived from the original on February 26, 2015. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
  84. ISBN 978-0674048720
    .
  85. ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 1977 – Amnesty International". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 2018-07-20. Retrieved 2010-12-14.
  86. ^ "The Nobel Peace Prize 2002 – Jimmy Carter". The Nobel Foundation. December 14, 2002. Archived from the original on August 11, 2018. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
  87. ^ Burns H. Weston, 20 March 2014, Encyclopædia Britannica, human rights Archived 2015-05-18 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  88. ^ "In historic move, UN declares healthy environment a human right". UNEP. 2022-07-28. Archived from the original on 2022-07-31. Retrieved 2022-07-31.

Further reading

Primary sources

External links


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_human_rights&oldid=1187418599"