History of lesbianism in the United States

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Symbol representing lesbian made from two interlocked astronomical symbols for the planet Venus. In biology, the singular symbol represents the female sex.[1][2]
Lesbian feminist pride labrys flag
Lesbian feminist pride labrys flag[3]

This article addresses the history of lesbianism in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, the members of same-sex female couples discussed here are not known to be lesbian (rather than, for example, bisexual), but they are mentioned as part of discussing the practice of lesbianism—that is, same-sex female sexual and romantic behavior.

1600–1899

Lesbian actress Charlotte Cushman, (left) as Romeo, with her sister Susan as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet in 1846. Nineteenth century lesbians like Cushman presented themselves publicly as close friends with their romantic partners.

Laws against

John Cotton proposed a law for Massachusetts Bay making sex between two women (or two men) a capital offense, but the law was not enacted.[4] It would have read, "Unnatural filthiness, to be punished with death, whether sodomy, which is carnal fellowship of man with man, or woman with woman, or buggery, which is carnal fellowship of man or woman with beasts or fowls."[5] In 1655, the Connecticut Colony passed a law against sodomy between women (as well as between men), but nothing came of this either.[6] In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a law stating that, "Whosoever shall be guilty of rape, polygamy, or sodomy with man or woman shall be punished, if a man, by castration. If a woman, by cutting thro' the cartilage of her nose a hole of one half inch diameter at the least,[7][8][9]" but this also did not become law. However, in 1649 in Plymouth Colony, Sarah White Norman and Mary Vincent Hammon were prosecuted for "lewd behavior with each other upon a bed"; their trial documents are the only known record of sex between female English colonists in North America during the 17th century.[10] Hammon was only admonished, perhaps because she was younger than sixteen,[10] but in 1650 Norman was convicted and required to acknowledge publicly her "unchaste behavior" with Hammon, as well as warned against future offenses.[11] This may be the only conviction for lesbianism in American history.[12]

In the 19th century, lesbians were only accepted if they hid their

better source needed
]

Some American lesbians in the arts moved in the 19th century from the United States to Rome, including the actress Charlotte Cushman,[17] and sculptors Emma Stebbins[18] and Harriet Hosmer. Around 1890, former acting First Lady Rose Cleveland started a lesbian relationship with Evangeline Marrs Simpson, with explicitly erotic correspondence;[19] this cooled when Evangeline married Henry Benjamin Whipple, but after his death in 1901 the two rekindled their relationship and in 1910 moved to Italy together.[20][21]

1900–1949

Studies on lesbian activity in prisons

A same-sex female couple on the cover of a 1915 criminology text.

The earliest published studies of lesbian activity were written in the early 20th century, and many were based on observations of, and data gathered from,

Puritanical moral foundation with an almost revolutionary sympathy for lesbian relationships; her focus revolved more around her revulsion for sexual contact between those of different ethnic backgrounds, yet offered an almost radical tolerance of the lesbian relations themselves, as Otis noted, "Sometimes the love (of one young woman for another) is very real and seems almost ennobling".[22] This document provided a rare view from a tightly controlled setting monitored by a corrections
supervisor. Kate Richards O'Hare, imprisoned in 1917 for five years under the Espionage Act of 1917, published a firsthand account of incarcerated women In Prison[23] complete with frightening accounts of lesbian sexual abuse among inmates. So wrote O'Hare: "...A thorough education in sex perversions is part of the educational system of most prisons, and for the most part the underkeepers [sic] and the stool pigeons are very efficient teachers..." O'Hare then recounted a systematic induction of women into a cycle of forced prostitution to which authorities turned a blind eye: "...there seems to be considerable ground for the commonly accepted belief of the prison inmates that much of its graft and profits may percolate upward to the under officials...the...stool pigeon...handled the vices so rampant in the prison...she, in fact, held the power of life and death over us, by being able to secure endless punishments in the blind, she could and did compel indulgence in this vice in order that its profits might be secured".[22]

Lesbian community

Early academic study of lesbian community include lesbian Mildred Berryman's 1930's groundbreaking[24]: 897–898 [25] The Psychological Phenomena of the Homosexual[26]: 223, 228  on 23 lesbian women, whom she met through the Salt Lake City Bohemian Club.[27][28][29]: 66  In the study most of the subjects (many of whom had Mormon background)[30][31][32] reported experiencing erotic interest in others of the same sex since childhood,[26]: 120, 222  and exhibited self-identity and community identity[33] as sexual minorities.[26]: 222  During the 1920s lesbian subcultures were beginning to become more established in several larger US cities.[34] However, police raids happened on lesbian places, resulting in their closure, such as the Eve's Hangout in Greenwich Village, after the deportation of Eva Kotchever for obscenity.[35]

Lesbians in literature

See also: Lesbian literature
Gertrude Stein

Lesbians also became somewhat more prominent in literature at this time. In the early 20th century, Paris became a haven for many lesbian writers who set up salons there and were able to live their lives in relative openness. The most famous Americans of these were

Nathalie Barney, as was sculptor Thelma Wood, photographer Berenice Abbott and painter Romaine Brooks.[40] In 1923, lesbian Elsa Gidlow, born in England, published the first volume of openly lesbian
love poetry in the United States, On A Grey Thread.

Yet, openly lesbian literature was still subject to censorship. In 1928, British lesbian author Radclyffe Hall wrote a tragic novel of lesbian love, The Well of Loneliness. After the book was banned in England, Hall lost her first American publisher.[41][42] In New York, John Saxton Sumner of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice and several police detectives seized 865 copies of The Well from her second American publisher's offices, and Donald Friede was charged with selling an obscene publication. But Friede and his publishing partner Pascal Covici had already moved the printing plates out of New York in order to continue publishing the book. By the time the case came to trial, it had already been reprinted six times. Despite its price of $5 — twice the cost of an average novel — it would sell over 100,000 copies in its first year.[43]

In the United States, as in the United Kingdom, the Hicklin test of obscenity applied,[

United States Customs Court, however, ruled that the book did not contain "one word, phrase, sentence or paragraph which could be truthfully pointed out as offensive to modesty".[46]

Most literature of the 1930s, '40s, and early '50s presented lesbian life as tragedy, ending with either the suicide of the lesbian character or her conversion to heterosexuality.

Edith Eyde, writing under the pen name Lisa Ben, an anagram for lesbian.[50] She produced only nine issues of Vice Versa, typing two originals of each with carbons.[51] She learned that she could not mail them due to possible obscenity charges, and even had difficulty distributing them by hand in lesbian bars such as the If Club.[51]

Furthermore, the Hays Code, which was in operation from 1930 until 1967, prohibited the depiction of homosexuality in all Hollywood films.[52][53]

Lesbians in the military

USS Oak Hill FC 2nd Class Marissa Gaeta kisses her fiancé, FC 3rd Class Citlalic Snell, after three-month deployment. Virginia Beach, VA (2011)

Many lesbians found solace in the all-female environment of the United States Women's Army Corps (WAC), but this demanded secrecy, as lesbians were not allowed to serve openly in the U.S. military.[54][55][56] Over the years the military not only dismissed women who announced their lesbianism, but sometimes went on "witch hunts" for lesbians in the ranks.[55][56]

1950–1999

1950s: Lesbianism in literature

See also: Lesbian literature

It was not until the mid-1950s that obscenity regulations began to relax and happy endings to lesbian romances became possible.[48] However, publications addressing homosexuality were officially deemed obscene under the Comstock Act until 1958.[57]

Spring Fire, the first lesbian paperback novel, and considered the beginning of the lesbian pulp fiction genre, was published in 1952 and sold 1.5 million copies.[58][59] It was written by lesbian author Marijane Meaker under the pen name "Vin Packer",[58] and ended unhappily.[48]

Cover of Spring Fire (1952), the first lesbian paperback novel, by Vin Packer (pen name of Marijane Meaker)

1952 also saw the publication of lesbian classic The Price of Salt by lesbian author Patricia Highsmith, published under the pseudonym "Claire Morgan", in which the women break up but are implied to get back together in the end (the novel was republished as Carol in 1990 under Highsmith's name).[60][61][62] In her 2003 memoir, Marijane Meaker said that, for many years, The Price of Salt was "the only lesbian novel, in either hard or soft cover, with a happy ending".[63]

Lesbian pulp fiction novels allowed young lesbian women to have some presence of representation in literature at the time. These works were representative but still limited by homophobic tones in the novels. Pulp novels were a double-edged sword for young lesbian women, as they perpetuated homophobic ideas but allowed for a silent culture to be seen by others in the public as well as read stories about themselves.[64]

1950s: The Kinsey Report

In 1953, Alfred Kinsey published "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female," in which he noted that 13% of the women he studied had at least one homosexual experience to orgasm (vs. 37% for men), while including homosexual experience that did not lead to orgasm raised the figure for women to 20%.[65] In addition, Kinsey noted that somewhere between 1% and 2% of the women he studied were exclusively homosexual (vs. 4% of the men).[65]

1950s: Legal restrictions on gays and lesbians

On April 27, 1953, President Eisenhower issued Executive Order 10450, which banned gay men and lesbians from working for any agency of the federal government.[66] It was not until 1973 that a federal judge ruled that a person's sexual orientation alone could not be the sole reason for termination from federal employment,[67] and not until 1975 that the United States Civil Service Commission announced that they would consider applications by gays and lesbians on a case by case basis.[67]

1950s – 1970s Rise of the LGBT rights movement

In the 1950s the lesbian rights movement began in America. The Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) was founded in San Francisco in 1955 by four female couples (including Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon) and was the first national lesbian political and social organization in the United States.[68][69] The group's name came from "The Songs of Bilitis," a lesbian-themed song cycle by French poet Pierre Louÿs, which described the fictional Bilitis as a resident of the Isle of Lesbos alongside Sappho.[69] DOB's activities included hosting public forums on homosexuality, offering support to isolated, married, and mothering lesbians, and participating in research activities.[69] Del Martin became DOB's first president, and Phyllis Lyon became the editor of the organization's monthly lesbian magazine, The Ladder, which was launched in October 1956 and continued until 1972, having reached print runs of almost 3,800 copies.[69] The show Confidential File on the station KTTV covered the 1962 convention of DOB and aired after Confidential File became syndicated nationally; this was probably the first American national broadcast that specifically covered lesbianism.[70] Kay Lahusen, the first openly gay or lesbian photojournalist of the gay rights movement,[71] photographed lesbians for several of the covers of The Ladder from 1964 to 1966 while her partner, Barbara Gittings, was the editor; previously there had been drawings of people and cats and such on the covers.[72] The first photograph of lesbians on the cover was done in September 1964, showing two women from the back, on a beach looking out to sea.[72] The first lesbian to appear on the cover with her face showing was Lilli Vincenz in January 1966.[72] Daughters of Bilitis ended in 1970.[69]

The Cooper Do-nuts Riot was a May 1959 incident in Los Angeles, in which lesbians, transgender women, drag queens, and gay men rioted, one of the first LGBT uprisings in the US.[73] The incident was sparked by police harassment of LGBT people at a 24-hour cafe called "Cooper Do-nuts".

The first public protests for equal rights for gay and lesbian people were staged at governmental offices and historic landmarks in New York, Philadelphia, and

Independence Hall to protest the federal government's policy on discrimination against gay people, holding a sign that read "Sexual preference is irrelevant to federal employment."[78][79] Gittings and Frank Kameny led the Annual Reminder
, the first pickets organized by homophile organizations specifically to demand equality for gays and lesbians, which included activists from New York, Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia and took place each Fourth of July from 1965 to 1969 in front of Independence Hall.

radical feminists. Ti-Grace Atkinson, a lesbian and radical feminist who helped to found the group The Feminists, is attributed with the phrase that embodies the movement: "Feminism is the theory; lesbianism is the practice."[80]
The Feminists, also known as Feminists—A Political Organization to Annihilate Sex Roles, was a radical feminist group active in New York City from 1968 to 1973. They at first advocated that women practice celibacy, and later came to advocate political lesbianism.

The modern LGBT civil rights movement began in 1969 with the

Stonewall Riots, when police raided a gay bar called the Stonewall Inn. A scuffle broke out when a woman in handcuffs was escorted from the door of the bar to the waiting police wagon several times. She escaped repeatedly and fought with four of the police, swearing and shouting, for about ten minutes. Described as "a typical New York butch" and "a dyke–stone butch", she had been hit on the head by an officer with a baton for, as one witness claimed, complaining that her handcuffs were too tight.[81] Bystanders recalled that the woman, whose identity remains unknown (Stormé DeLarverie, who was a lesbian, has been identified by some, including herself, as the woman, but accounts vary [82][83]), sparked the crowd to fight when she looked at bystanders and shouted, "Why don't you guys do something?" After an officer picked her up and heaved her into the back of the wagon,[84] the crowd became a mob and went "berserk": "It was at that moment that the scene became explosive."[85] Lesbian Martha Shelley was also in Greenwich Village the night of the Stonewall Riot with women who were starting a Daughters of Bilitis chapter in Boston.[86] Recognizing the significance of the event and being politically aware[87] she proposed a protest march and as a result DOB and Mattachine sponsored a demonstration.[88] According to an article in the program for the first San Francisco pride march, she was one of the first four members of the Gay Liberation Front
, the others being Michael Brown, Jerry Hoose, and Jim Owles.

1970s: Lesbians and feminism

See also: Second-wave feminism
Democratic National Congress (1980)

Lesbians were also active in the feminist movement. The first time lesbian concerns were introduced into the National Organization for Women came in 1969, when Ivy Bottini, an open lesbian who was then president of the New York NOW chapter, held a public forum titled "Is Lesbianism a Feminist Issue?".[89] However, the national president, Betty Friedan, was against lesbian participation in the movement. In 1969 she referred to growing lesbian visibility as a "lavender menace" and fired openly lesbian newsletter editor Rita Mae Brown, and in 1970 she engineered the expulsion of lesbians, including Bottini, from the New York chapter.[90][91]

At the 1970 Congress to Unite Women, on the first evening when all 400 feminists were assembled in the auditorium, twenty women wearing t-shirts that read "Lavender Menace" came to the front of the room and faced the audience.[92] One of the women then read their group's paper, "The Woman-Identified Woman", which was the first major lesbian feminist statement.[92][93] The group, who later named themselves Radicalesbians, were among the first to challenge the heterosexism of heterosexual feminists and to describe lesbian experience in positive terms.[94][95] In 1971 NOW passed a resolution declaring "that a woman's right to her own person includes the right to define and express her own sexuality and to choose her own lifestyle," as well as a conference resolution stating that forcing lesbian mothers to stay in marriages or to live a secret existence in an effort to keep their children was unjust.[96] That year NOW also committed to offering legal and moral support in a test case involving child custody rights of lesbian mothers.[96] In 1973 the NOW Task Force on Sexuality and Lesbianism was established.[96]

At first, Friedan ignored lesbians in NOW and objected to what she saw as demands for equal time.

equal opportunity in jobs and all the rest of it. Yes, I suppose you have to say that freedom of sexual choice is part of that, but it shouldn't be the main issue ...."[100] Friedan eventually admitted that "the whole idea of homosexuality made me profoundly uneasy."[97]
and acknowledged that she had been very square and was uncomfortable about lesbianism.

Audre Lorde, Meridel Lesueur, Adrienne Rich (1980)

At the

Del Martin was the first open lesbian elected to NOW's board of directors, and Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon were the first lesbian couple to join NOW.[104][105][68]

Lesbian feminism is a cultural movement and critical perspective, most influential in the 1970s and early 1980s (primarily in North America and Western Europe), that encourages women to direct their energies toward other women rather than men, and often advocates lesbianism as the logical result of feminism.[106] Some key American lesbian feminist thinkers and activists are Charlotte Bunch, Rita Mae Brown, Adrienne Rich, Audre Lorde, Marilyn Frye, and Mary Daly.

Lesbian separatism, a subset of lesbian feminism, became popular in the 1970s as some lesbians doubted whether mainstream society or even the LGBT movement had anything to offer them. In 1970, seven women (including Del Martin) confronted the North Conference of Homophile [meaning homosexual] Organizations about the relevance of the gay rights movement to the women within it. The delegates passed a resolution in favor of women's liberation, but Del Martin felt they had not done enough, and wrote "If That's All There Is", an influential 1970 essay in which she decried gay rights organizations as sexist.[107][108] In the summer of 1971, a lesbian group calling themselves "The Furies" formed a commune open to lesbians only, where they put out a monthly newspaper. "The Furies" consisted of twelve women, aged eighteen to twenty-eight, all feminists, all lesbians, all white, with three children among them.[109] They shared chores and clothes, lived together, held some of their money in common, and slept on mattresses on a common floor.[109] They also started a school to teach women auto and home repair so they would not be dependent on men.[109] The newspaper lasted from January 1972 to June 1973;[110] the commune itself ended in 1972.[111] In 1973, lesbian separatist and cultural critic Jill Johnston published Lesbian Nation, after scandalizing Norman Mailer and others in attendance at a 1971 New York debate on feminism by kissing and rolling around the floor with another woman and announcing, "All women are lesbians, except those who don't know it yet."[112] Another 1970s separatist group, the Lincoln Legion of Lesbians, promoted lesbian solidarity and socal events into the 1990s. It was also political, bringing equal rights for gay and lesbian people to a vote in Nebraska.[113]

Lesbian pride flag with double-Venus symbol[1]
(in biology and botany, the Venus symbol represents the female sex[2])

Park Slope, Brooklyn, was founded in 1974. It was founded by lesbian members of the Gay Academic Union who had organized a group to discuss sexism within that organization, specifically Joan Nestle
, Deborah Edel, Sahli Cavallo, Pamela Oline, and Julia Stanley.

Lesbian activist Barbara Gittings remained in the LGBT movement in the 1970s. In that decade, Gittings was most involved in the American Library Association, especially its gay caucus, the first such in a professional organization, in order to promote positive literature about homosexuality in libraries. She was also involved in getting homosexuality accepted by psychiatry, and was a discussion leader for the American Psychiatric Association panel on "Life Styles of Non-Patient Homosexuals," which included Del Martin as one of six panelists.[114] In 1972, she organized the appearance of "Dr. H. Anonymous," a gay psychiatrist who appeared wearing a mask to conceal his identity and joined a panel that she and others participated in titled "Psychiatry: Friend or Foe to Homosexuals? A Dialogue".[114] This spurred the beginning of an official homosexual group within the APA.[115] Also in 1972, and again in 1976 and 1978, Barbara organized and staffed exhibits on homosexuality at yearly APA conferences.[114] Largely due to these efforts, the APA removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders in 1973.[115] Gay rights activist Frank Kameny called Barbara the "Founding Mother" of the movement.[116]

Lesbian separatist ideology led to the establishment of sex segregated womyn's land communities,[117] and creation of the women-only Michigan Womyn's Music Festival.[118]

1970s Political action

Briggs Initiative
in the 1970s

In the 1970s open lesbians also began their first forays into American politics. In 1972,

Briggs Initiative" because it was sponsored by John Briggs), which would have banned gays and lesbians from teaching in public schools in California.[124] Gearhart debated John Briggs about the initiative, which was defeated.[125][126][127] A clip of their debate appeared in the documentary film The Times of Harvey Milk
, which also included Gearhart talking about working with Milk against Proposition 6, and appearances by Kronenberg.

In 1979, the first National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights was held, in Washington, D.C., on October 14. It drew between 75,000 and 125,000[128] people together to demand equal civil rights and urge the passage of protective civil rights legislation.[129] The march was led by the Salsa Soul Sisters, a lesbian group, who carried the official march banner. Charlotte Bunch and Audre Lorde were the only out lesbians who spoke at the main rally.[130]

San Francisco lesbian bar

vice squad,[133] an event which drew national attention to other incidents of anti-gay violence and police harassment of the LGBT community[134] and helped propel a (unsuccessful[135]) citywide proposition to ban the city's vice squad altogether.[136] Historians have written about the incident when describing the tension that existed between the police and the LGBT community during the late 1970s.[137][138][139][140][141]

1970s Conflict between some lesbian feminists and transgender women

The 1970s also saw conflict between the transgender and lesbian communities in America. A dispute began in 1973, when the West Coast Lesbian Conference split over a scheduled performance by the lesbian transgender folk-singer Beth Elliott, who had helped to create the conference and was on its organization committee as well as having been asked to perform as a singer in the conference's entertainment program.[142][143][144] After a vote in her favor,[145] Elliot gave a brief performance and went on to leave the conference.[146][142] The following day, keynote speaker Robin Morgan gave her address, which she had altered after the events of the previous night.[147] In the speech, titled "Lesbianism and Feminism: Synonyms or Contradictions?" Morgan referred to Elliott as a "gatecrashing...male transvestite"[142] and, using male pronouns, charged her as "an opportunist, an infiltrator, and a destroyer-with the mentality of a rapist."[142][148] Elliott had served as vice-president of the San Francisco chapter of the

The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male.[152] Raymond asserted that Sandy Stone was working to destroy the Olivia Records
collective and womanhood in general with "male energy." In 1976, prior to publication, Raymond sent a draft of the chapter addressing Stone to the Olivia collective "for comment", possibly with the intention of outing Stone. However, Stone had informed the collective of her transgender status before joining. The collective replied that they disagreed with Raymond's description of transgender identity and that they felt differently about Stone's place in and effect on the collective. Raymond responded to this in the published version of her manuscript:

Masculine behavior is notably obtrusive. It is significant that transsexually constructed lesbian feminists have inserted themselves into positions of importance and/or performance in the feminist community. Sandy Stone, the transsexual engineer with Olivia Records, an "all-women" recording company, illustrates this well. Stone is not only crucial to the Olivia enterprise but plays a very dominant role there. The...visibility he achieved in the aftermath of the Olivia controversy...only serves to enhance his previously dominant role and to divide women, as men frequently do, when they make their presence necessary and vital to women. As one woman wrote: "I feel raped when Olivia passes off Sandy...as a real woman. After all his male privilege, is he going to cash in on lesbian feminist culture too?"[152]

Members of the collective responded in turn by defending Stone in various publications. Stone remained a member of the women's collective and continued to record Olivia artists until political dissension over transgender topics, culminating in 1979 with the threat of a boycott of Olivia products. Finally, Stone resigned.[153][154][151]

1970s – 1980s Lesbian/feminist sex wars

The

prostitution, sadomasochism and other sexual issues. The feminist movement was deeply divided as a result of these debates.[156][157][158][159][160] Samois, the earliest known lesbian S/M organization in the United States, was founded in San Francisco in 1978.[161][162] During the late 1970s and the 1980s, lesbian Andrea Dworkin
gained national fame as a spokeswoman for the feminist anti-pornography movement, and for her writing on pornography and sexuality, particularly in Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1981) and Intercourse (1987), which remain her two most widely known books.

1970s – 1980s: Challenge to white feminists by lesbians of color

Gloria Anzaldua
, writer and editor

In 1977, a Bostonian Black lesbian feminist organization called the Combahee River Collective published their statement which is an important artifact for Black and/or lesbian feminism and the development of identity politics.[163] The Combahee River Collective Statement made legible the concerns of Black women-loving women who felt as though they were being ignored by mainstream feminists and the civil rights movement.[164] Their attention to overlapping oppressions and refusal to accept essentialist, universalizing feminist ideologies has helped to shape third-wave and contemporary feminism.[165]

Another important feminist work published in the 1980s was

This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color, a feminist anthology edited by American lesbians Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa. The anthology was first published in 1981 by Persephone Press, and the second edition was published in 1983 by Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press. The book was out in its third edition, published by Third Woman Press, until 2008, when its contract with Third Woman Press expired and it went out of print. This Bridge centered the experiences of women of color, offering a serious challenge to white feminists who made claims to solidarity based on sisterhood. Writings in the anthology, along with works by other prominent feminists of color, call for a greater prominence within feminism for race-related subjectivities, and ultimately laid the foundation for third wave feminism. This Bridge has become one of the most cited books in feminist theorizing. Another important event for lesbians of color was that "Becoming Visible: The First Black Lesbian Conference" was held at the Women's Building, from October 17 to 19, 1980. It has been credited as the first conference for African-American lesbian women.[166]

1980s: Lesbians and religion

Lesbians had some success in being integrated into religious life in the 1980s. In 1984 Reconstructionist Judaism became the first Jewish denomination to allow openly lesbian rabbis and cantors.[167] In 1988 Stacy Offner became the first openly lesbian rabbi hired by a mainstream Jewish congregation, Shir Tikvah Congregation of Minneapolis (a Reform Jewish congregation).[168][169] Years of debate in the 1980s also led to Reform Judaism deciding to allow openly lesbian rabbis and cantors in 1990.[170]

1990s: Victories and political power

In re Guardianship of Kowalski, 478 N.W.2d 790 (Minn. Ct. App. 1991), was a Minnesota Court of Appeals case that established a lesbian's partner as her legal guardian after she (Sharon Kowalski) became incapacitated following an automobile accident. Because the case was contested by Kowalski's parents and family and initially resulted in the partner (Karen Thompson) being excluded for several years from visiting Kowalski, the gay community celebrated the final resolution in favor of the partner as a victory for gay rights.

The

AIDS and abortion, while their own problems went unsolved.[173] Most importantly, lesbians were frustrated with invisibility in society at large, and invisibility and misogyny in the LGBT community.[173]

From 1993 until 2011, lesbians were allowed to serve in the military, but only if they kept their sexuality secret under what was known as the "

Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy.[54]

In the 1990s lesbians also became more visible in politics. In 1990, Dale McCormick became the first open lesbian elected to a state Senate (she was elected to the Maine Senate).[174] In 1991, Sherry Harris was elected to the City Council in Seattle, Washington, making her the first openly lesbian African-American elected official.[175] In 1993, Roberta Achtenberg became the first openly gay or lesbian person to be nominated by the president and confirmed by the U.S. Senate when she was appointed to the position of Assistant Secretary for Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity by President Bill Clinton.[176] Deborah Batts became the first openly gay or lesbian federal judge in 1994; she was appointed to the U.S. District Court in New York.[177] [178] In 1998 Tammy Baldwin became the first openly gay or lesbian non-incumbent ever elected to Congress, and the first open lesbian ever elected to Congress, winning Wisconsin's 2nd congressional district seat over Josephine Musser.[179][180]

1990s: Lesbianism in the media

Ellen DeGeneres (1994), one of the first openly lesbian American celebrities

Entertainment also began to show more lesbian stories and openly lesbian performers. In 1991, the first lesbian kiss on television occurred on L.A. Law between the fictional characters of C.J. Lamb (played by Amanda Donohoe) and Abby (Michele Greene).[181] Singer Melissa Etheridge came out as a lesbian in 1993, during the Triangle Ball, the first inaugural ball to ever be held in honor of gays and lesbians.[182] Subsequently her album Your Little Secret went multiplatinum, making her one of the most successful openly lesbian singers ever.[183] She also won a Grammy Award in 1995 for Best Female Rock Vocalist.[184][185][186]

In 1996, the first lesbian wedding on television was held for fictional characters Carol (played by Jane Sibbett) and Susan (played by Jessica Hecht) on Friends.[187] In 1997, Ellen DeGeneres came out as a lesbian, one of the first celebrities to do so, and later that year her character Ellen Morgan came out as a lesbian on the TV show Ellen, making her the first openly lesbian actress to play an openly lesbian character on television.[188][189][190]

1990s legal victories

There were several prominent legal successes for lesbians in the 1990s. Hawaii's denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples was first challenged in state court in 1991 in

Domestic partnerships were legalized in California in 1999 - the first state to do so, and therefore, the first state to legally recognize same-sex relationships.[195] Lesbian legislator Carole Migden was the primary author and sponsor of the domestic partnership bills.[196]
Several other states have legalized domestic partnerships since.

2000–2020

Civil unions and same sex marriage

2000

In 2000,

civil unions were legalized in Vermont (the first state to do so) and Carolyn Conrad and Kathleen Peterson became the first couple in the United States to be civilly united.[197]
Several other states have legalized civil unions since. Same-sex marriages also began to be legally recognized in the 2000s.

2004

Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon became the first same-sex couple to be legally married in the United States in 2004,[198] when San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom allowed city hall to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples.[199] However, all same-sex marriages done in 2004 in California were annulled.[200] After the California Supreme Court decision in 2008 that granted same-sex couples in California the right to marry, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon remarried, and were again the first same-sex couple in the state to marry.[201] [202] Later in 2008 Proposition 8 illegalized same-sex marriage in California until 2013 (see below), but the marriages that occurred between the California Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage and the approval of Proposition 8 illegalizing it are still considered valid, including the marriage of Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon.[203] However, Del Martin died in 2008.[204]

Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, the first same sex couple to be legally wed in the United States (2004)

In 2004, same-sex marriage was legalized in the state of Massachusetts, and Marcia Hams and Sue Shepherd became the first same-sex couple to receive a marriage license in Massachusetts.[205][206] Mary Bonauto, herself a lesbian, had argued and won the case that legalized same-sex marriage in the state of Massachusetts in 2003.[207][208] In March 2004, same-sex marriage was legalized in part of Oregon, as after researching the issue and getting two legal opinions, the commissioners decided Oregon's Constitution would not allow them to discriminate against same-sex couples. The Chairwoman of the Board of Commissioners ordered the clerk to begin issuing marriage licenses.[209] Mary Li of Portland and her partner, 42-year-old Becky Kennedy, became the first same-sex couple to marry in Oregon.[210] However, later that year, Oregon voters passed a constitutional amendment defining marriage as involving one man and one woman.[211] The same-sex marriages from 2004 were ruled void by the Oregon Supreme Court in 2005.[212]

2008

Same-sex marriage was legalized in Connecticut in 2008, and state Rep. Beth Bye and her girlfriend Tracey Wilson became the first same-sex couple to marry in Connecticut.[213][214] That same year, at the request of a same-sex female couple (Kitzen and Jeni Branting), the Coquille Indian Tribe on the southern Oregon coast adopted a law recognizing same-sex marriage. Tribal law specialists said the Coquille may be the first tribe to sanction such marriages.[215] In 2009 Kitzen and Jeni Branting married in the Coquille Indian tribe's Coos Bay plankhouse, a 3-year-old meeting hall built in traditional Coquille style with cedar plank walls. They were the first same-sex couple to have their marriage recognized by the tribe, of which Kitzen was a member.[216][217]

2009

Same-sex marriage was legalized in Iowa in 2009, and Shelley Wolfe and Melisa Keeton became the first same-sex female couple (and the second same-sex couple) to marry in Iowa.[218][219] Same-sex marriage was legalized in Vermont in 2009,[220] and Claire Williams and Cori Giroux became one of the first same-sex couples to marry in Vermont (others including them married the moment same-sex marriage was legalized).

2010

The lipstick lesbian flag was introduced in 2010 by Natalie McCray; this is a version with the kiss symbol changed. The lipstick lesbian flag has not been widely adopted;[221] some lesbians are against it because it does not include butch lesbians, and because McCray's blog had biphobic, racist, and transphobic comments.[222]

In 2010, same-sex marriage was legalized in the

District of Columbia, and Sinjoyla Townsend and Angelisa Young became the first same-sex couple to marry in the District of Columbia.[223] That year same-sex marriage was also legalized in New Hampshire,[224] and Linda Murphy and Donna Swartwout became one of the first same-sex couples to marry in New Hampshire (others including them married the moment same-sex marriage was legalized).[225]

2011

In 2011, Courtney Mitchell and Sarah Welton, both from

Suquamish tribe of Washington state adopted a law proposed by a young lesbian tribal member (Heather Purser) recognizing same-sex marriage.[229][230]

2012

In 2012, a same-sex couple (unknown if they were women or men) wed in December 2012 under Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribal law; the tribe will issue a marriage license to anybody who lives within the tribes' jurisdiction, if at least one person is a tribal member.[231] Also in 2012, Maine, Massachusetts, and Washington became the first states to pass same-sex marriage by popular vote.[232] Later that year Sarah and Emily Cofer became the first same-sex couple to be married in Washington,[233] and Donna Galluzzo and Lisa Gorney became one of the first same-sex couples to be married in Maine.[234]

2013

A couple with their children at marriage equality rally, Seattle, WA (2013)

In 2013, in the case

Cook County clerk to issue an expedited marriage license to Gray and Ewert before the state's same-sex marriage law took effect in June 2014, because Gray was terminally ill; slightly later that same year, it was declared that all same-sex couples in Illinois where one partner had a terminal illness could marry immediately.[250][252]

2014

In January 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Oklahoma, but the ruling was stayed; in 2014, a U.S. appeals court in Denver upheld the lower court ruling that struck down Oklahoma's gay-marriage ban, but that was also stayed.[253] In March 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Michigan, and Glenna DeJong and Marsha Caspar became the first same-sex couple married in Michigan; however, later that year the overturning of Michigan's ban on same-sex marriage was indefinitely stayed.[254][255] In May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Arkansas, and Kristin Seaton and Jennifer Rambo became the first same-sex couple married in Arkansas; later that year, the Arkansas Supreme Court suspended same-sex marriages.[256][257] In May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Oregon, and Deanna Geiger and Janine Nelson became the first same-sex couple to marry in Oregon.[258][259] Also in May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, but later that year same-sex marriages in Wisconsin were put on hold while the ruling striking down the state's ban on such unions was appealed.[260][261][262] That same month, Idaho's same-sex marriage ban was declared unconstitutional, but another court stayed the ruling.[263][264] Also in 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Kentucky, but that ruling was put on hold and so no same-sex marriages were performed at that time.[265] Indiana performed same-sex marriages for three days in 2014, but then the ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in Indiana was likewise put on hold.[266] Similarly, a federal appeals court based in Denver found that states cannot ban gay marriage, but that ruling was put on hold pending an appeal; however, Boulder county clerk Hillary Hall (the first clerk to do so) and clerks in Denver and Pueblo counties issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples in Colorado in spite of the hold.[267][268] Later that year, same-sex marriage was legalized in Colorado, but the ruling was stayed.[269] Colorado's Supreme Court ordered the Denver county clerk to stop issuing marriage licenses to gay couples while the state's ban against the unions was in place.[270] While that decision did not include Boulder and Pueblo, Pueblo county agreed to stop issuing licenses at the request of the Attorney General's office, but Boulder's clerk did not.[267] Later that year a federal judge in Denver ruled Colorado's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, but the ruling was stayed.[271][272] Later that year the Colorado Supreme Court ordered Boulder County clerk Hillary Hall to stop issuing same-sex marriage licenses.[273]

Pride Parade
, Washington, DC (2014)

Also in 2014, Monroe County, Florida, legalized same-sex marriages, but the ruling was stayed.

Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals (covering Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas) ruled against Virginia's gay marriage ban, but the ruling was stayed.[278][279] However, in August 2014 a state court in Kingston, Tennessee, became the first to uphold a state ban on gay marriage since the Supreme Court's decision in 2013 in United States v. Windsor.[280] Also, in September 2014 a federal judge upheld Louisiana's ban on same-sex marriages, which was the first such loss for LGBT rights in federal court since the Supreme Court's decision in 2013 in United States v. Windsor.[281] But slightly later the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals legalized same-sex marriage in Indiana and Wisconsin, although the decision did not take effect then.[282] Also, Louisiana legalized same-sex marriage in September 2014, but the ruling did not take effect then.[283][284] In October 2014, the Supreme Court declined to hear the seven cases regarding same-sex marriage in Indiana, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin, which meant lower court decisions ruling in favor of same-sex marriage stood, and therefore same-sex marriage then became legal in those states.[285]

Shortly later that month, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco declared same-sex marriage legal in Idaho and Nevada, but Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy temporarily blocked that ruling for Idaho.[286][287] Shortly later a private group that had led the legal fight to defend the voter-approved ban on same-sex marriage withdrew its pending appeal for a stay with the Supreme Court, and thus same-sex marriage became legal in Nevada.[288] Nevada state Sen. Kelvin Atkinson and Sherwood Howard were the first same-sex couple to marry in Nevada.[288] Also in October 2014, a federal judge legalized same-sex marriage in North Carolina; although his federal judicial district only covers the western third of the state, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper said that the federal ruling applied statewide.[289] Also that month Attorney General Patrick Morrisey announced he would no longer fight a challenge to West Virginia's same-sex marriage ban, and thus same-sex marriage was legalized in West Virginia.[290][291] Same-sex marriage was also legalized in Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming that month.[292][293][294][295][296] In November 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Kansas, but Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor issued an order temporarily blocking it.[297] The order was lifted later that month; although Kansas Attorney General Derek Schmidt said that a separate lawsuit he filed with the state Supreme Court should prevent gay marriage in all but the two counties that were home to cases covered in the ruling from the nation's capital (Douglas and Sedgwick counties) couples beyond Douglas and Sedgwick counties picked up marriage licenses also.[298][299] Later in November 2014 the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Johnson County could issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and left it to the federal courts to determine whether a Kansas ban on same-sex marriage violated the U.S. Constitution.[300] Derek Schmidt then asked the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals for an en banc hearing on the Kansas same-sex marriage ban, but the 10th Circuit refused.[301] Also in November 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Montana and South Carolina, although the ruling in South Carolina was stayed until later that month.[302][303][304] Kayla Bennett and Kristin Anderson were the first same-sex couple to be married in South Carolina.[305] That same month, same-sex marriage was legalized in Arkansas and Mississippi, but the rulings were stayed.[306] Also in November 2014, St. Louis Circuit Judge Rex Burlison ruled that Missourians in same sex relationships have the right to marry, and St. Louis County began complying with that ruling, as shortly after Jackson County also did.[307][308] But the judge who issued the ruling striking down Missouri's same-sex marriage ban stayed its order directing Jackson County to issue licenses to same-sex couples.[309] Also in November 2014, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld bans on same-sex marriage in Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, and Michigan, marking the first time since the Supreme Court's rulings in Windsor v. U.S. and Hollingsworth v. Perry (both of which were in favor of same-sex marriage) that any federal appeals court upheld a state's voter-approved ban on same-sex marriage.[310]

2015

Pink lesbian flag with colors copied from the lipstick lesbian flag.

In January 2015, U.S. District Judge Robert Hinkle in Tallahassee ruled that all clerks in the state were required under the Constitution to issue marriage licenses to all same-sex couples.[311] On January 5, 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in Miami-Dade County when Judge Sarah Zabel lifted the legal stay on her July decision legalizing same-sex marriage in Florida, and Karla Arguello and Catherina Pareto became the first same-sex couple married in Florida.[312][313] On January 6, 2015 same-sex marriage was legalized and began throughout Florida.[313] Also in January 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in South Dakota, but the ruling was stayed.[314] Also that month, same-sex marriage was legalized in two separate rulings in Alabama, but both rulings were stayed.[315][316][317] However, in February 2015 same-sex marriage was legalized in Alabama after the Supreme Court refused Alabama's attorney general's request to keep same-sex marriages on hold until the Supreme Court ruled whether laws banning them are constitutional.[318] But the chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, Roy Moore, wrote in his own order later that the latest ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in Alabama did not apply to the state's probate judges and directed them not to comply.[319] The judge who issued that latest ruling (Judge Callie V. S. Granade) then ruled that the local probate judge (Judge Don Davis of Mobile County) could not refuse to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, after which Davis began issuing licenses to same-sex couples, as did many counties in Alabama.[319][320] On February 17, 2015, a Texas probate judge ruled that the state's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, as part of an estate battle.[321] Later that month Sarah Goodfriend and Suzanne Bryant became the first same-sex couple married in Texas, after their marriage license was issued in response to a district judge's order in Travis County because one of the women had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer.[322] However, the clerk's office noted that "[a]ny additional licenses issued to same sex couples also must be court ordered," and the Texas Supreme Court issued an emergency stay that same afternoon they were married.[322] Also in February 2015, the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska announced its courts were authorized to allow the performance of same-sex marriages.[323][324] In March 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in Nebraska, but that was stayed until March 9 to give state officials time to appeal the ruling and ask for an extension of the stay, and then the Eighth Circuit granted the state's request, which placed same-sex marriage in Nebraska on hold until the federal appeals court ruled on Nebraska's marriage ban.[325][326] Also in March 2015, the Alabama supreme court ordered Alabama's probate judges to stop issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples, stating that a previous federal ruling that same-sex marriage bans violate the US constitution did not preclude them from following state law, which defined marriage as between a man and a woman.[327]

In April 2015 Guam's attorney general directed officials to begin processing marriage license applications from same-sex couples, but the governor said he wanted to study the issue further, and the public health director said he wouldn't accept the applications.[328][329] The attorney general's direction came after Loretta M. Pangelinan and Kathleen M. Aguero sued in U.S. District Court in Guam (also in April 2015) after their marriage application was refused.[329] In May 2015, a federal judge ruled that same-sex marriage was legal in all Alabama counties, but placed her decision on hold until the Supreme Court issued a ruling on same-sex marriage.[330] On June 5, 2015, a judge issued a ruling which struck down Guam's statutory ban on same-sex marriage. The ruling was issued immediately after the court hearing proceedings and went into effect on 8 am Tuesday June 9. Same-sex marriages became performable and recognised in the U.S. territory from that date. Attorneys representing the government of Guam had said in a May 18 court filing that "should a court strike current Guam law, they would respect and follow such a decision".[331] On June 9, 2015, Loretta M. Pangelinan, 28, and Kathleen M. Aguero, 29, were the first of several same-sex couples to receive a marriage license in the territory's capital, Hagåtña.[332] The first couple to marry was Deasia Johnson of Killeen, Texas and Nikki Dismuke of New Orleans, who married each other in a brief ceremony in the office of Public Health Director James Gillan on the morning on June 9, 2015, the day the island territory became the United States' first overseas territory to recognize same-sex marriage.[333]

Finally, on June 26, 2015, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5-to-4 vote in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Constitution guarantees a right to same-sex marriage, legalizing it throughout the United States.[334] Mary Bonauto, herself a lesbian, was the attorney for the plaintiffs arguing in favor of same-sex marriage.[335][336]

Other legal victories

Orange-pink lesbian flag derived from the pink lesbian flag, circulated on social media in 2018.
Five-stripes variant of orange-pink lesbian flag.

Aside from the legalization of same-sex marriage, there were seven significant legal victories for lesbians from the year 2000 until 2020. In 2009, due to the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act being signed into law, the definition of federal hate crime was expanded to include those violent crimes in which the victim is selected due to their sexual orientation; previously federal hate crimes were defined as only those violent crimes where the victim is selected due to their race, color, religion, or national origin.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not allow sexual orientation discrimination in employment because it is a form of sex discrimination.[347][348] In 2017, the Supreme Court ruled in Pavan v. Smith that in regard to the issuing of birth certificates, no state can treat same-sex couples differently than heterosexual ones; the case was brought by two same-sex female couples.[349][350][351]

Bostock v. Clayton County, 590 U.S. ___ (2020), was a landmark Supreme Court case in which the Court held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects employees against discrimination because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.[352]

Setbacks regarding law

In 2017, the Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are gay or bisexual.[353]

Lesbians in politics and business

Tammy Baldwin, official 113th Congress photo portrait

In 2012, Tammy Baldwin became the first openly lesbian or gay senator in American history.[354] Another first for lesbians in politics came that year when the first lesbian Super PAC, LPAC, was founded by lesbian Urvashi Vaid to represent the interests of lesbians in the United States, and to campaign on LGBT and women's rights issues.[355][356][357][358][359]

In 2015 Aisha Moodie-Mills became the new president and CEO of the

Victory Fund, which made her the first woman, first black woman, first lesbian, and first black lesbian to become the head of a national leading LGBT organization.[360][361]

Lesbian representation in media

The turn of the century saw a gradual rise in mainstream lesbian representation. In Season 4 of Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), the relationship between Willow Rosenberg and Tara Maclay's became one of the first prominent portrayals of a lesbian couple on American primetime television.[362][363] The series also featured the first lesbian sex scene in broadcast TV history.[364]

Showtime's The L Word (2004-2009) was the first series to feature a significant number of lesbian characters as its leads and to show diverse portrayals of lesbian identity. It is considered groundbreaking for its positive and multi-faceted portrayal of queer community.[365][366] Netflix's Orange is the New Black (2013-2019) similarly portrayed several lesbian characters and relationships and confronted various lesbian stereotypes throughout its plot lines.

In 2016,

Bury Your Gays" trope.[367][368] GLAAD's annual report on LGBT representation called 2016 "a very deadly year for queer female characters."[369]

A number of animated shows, many geared towards a younger audience, have been praised for their portrayals of lesbian relationships. In 2014, The Legend of Korra ended with a final shot that confirms a romantic relationship between Asami and Korra, pushing boundaries for representation in children's television.[370] She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2018) similarly ends with Catra and Adora confessing their mutual love and sharing an on-screen kiss.[371][372]

DC Comics confirmed in 2020 that the modern Batwoman is an out lesbian.[373]

GLAAD reports that lesbian characters made up 40% of LGBT characters on broadcast television from 2021 to 2022.[374]

Orlando shootings

Main article:
2016 Orlando nightclub shootings

On June 11, 2016, Pulse, a

ISIL.[383]

Notable American lesbians

Wanda Sykes at 2010 GLAAD Media Awards
Rachel Maddow (2008)

See also

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Bibliography

External links
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