History of literature

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

For a more in-depth table of the history of literature, see List of years in literature.
History of literature
by era
Ancient (corpora)
Bronze Age
Classical
Early medieval
Medieval by century
Early modern by century
Modern by century
Contemporary by century
 Literature portal
History of literature
by region or country
General topics
Types
Lists
  • Books
  • Authors
Middle Eastern
European
Modern
North and South American
Latin American
Oceanian
Asian
East
Southeast
South
African
North
Sub-Saharan
Related topics
 Literature portal

The history of literature is the historical development of

literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all writings constitute literature. Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data (e.g., a check register
) are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above.

Ancient (Bronze Age–5th century)

Main article: Ancient literature

Early literature is derived from stories told in hunter-gatherer bands through oral tradition, including myth and folklore. Storytelling emerged as the human mind evolved to apply causal reasoning and structure events into a narrative and language, allowing early humans to share information with one another. Early storytelling provided opportunity to learn about dangers and social norms while also entertaining listeners.[1] Myth can be expanded to include all use of patterns and stories to make sense of the world, and it may be psychologically intrinsic to humans. Epic poetry is recognized as the pinnacle of ancient literature. These works are long narrative poems that recount the feats of mythic heroes, often said to take place in the nation's early history.[2]

The

Ancient China about 1250 BC, and in Mesoamerica about 650 BC. Literature was not initially incorporated in writing, as it was primarily used for simpler purposes, such as accounting.[3] Some of the earliest surviving works of literature include The Maxims of Ptahhotep and the Story of Wenamun from Ancient Egypt, Instructions of Shuruppak and Poor Man of Nippur from Mesopotamia, and Classic of Poetry from Ancient China.[4]

Mesopotamia

A stone tablet containing part of the Epic of Gilgamesh

Sumerian literature is the oldest known literature, written in Sumer. Types of literature were not clearly defined, and all Sumerian literature incorporated poetic aspects. Sumerian poems demonstrate basic elements of poetry, including lines, imagery, and metaphor. Humans, gods, talking animals, and inanimate objects were all incorporated as characters. Suspense and humor were both incorporated into Sumerian stories. These stories were primarily shared orally, though they were also recorded by scribes. Some works were associated with specific musical instruments or contexts and may have been performed in specific settings. Sumerian literature did not use titles, instead being referred to by the work's first line.[5]

Akkadian literature developed in subsequent Mesopotamian societies, such as Babylonia and Assyria, from the third to first millennia BC. During this time, it spread to other areas, including Egypt, Ugarit, and Hattusa. The Akkadian language was influenced by the Sumerian language, and many elements of Sumerian literature were adopted in Akkadian literature. Many works of Akkadian literature were commissioned by kings that had scribes and scholars in their service. Some of these works served to celebrate the king or the divine, while others recorded information for religious practices or medicine. Poetry, proverbs, folktales, love lyrics, and accounts of disputes were all incorporated into Akkadian literature.[6]

Ancient Egypt

Main article: Ancient Egyptian literature

Literature of the Old Kingdom of Egypt developed directly from practical use during the Fifth Dynasty. Lists of offerings to the gods were rewritten as prayers, and statistical information about state officials was expanded into autobiographies. These autobiographies were written to exemplify the virtues of their subjects and often incorporated a free flow style that blended prose and poetry. Kings were not written about beyond clerical recordings, but poetry was performed during the funerals of kings as part of a religious ritual. The Instructions, a form of wisdom literature that was popular during most of Ancient Egyptian history, taught maxims of Ancient Egyptian philosophy that combined pragmatic thought and religious speculation.[7]

These literary traditions continued to develop in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt as autobiographies became more intricate. The role of the king in literature expanded during this period; royal testaments were written from the perspective of the king to his successor, and celebrations of the king and advocacy of strong leadership were included in autobiographies and Instructions. Fiction and analysis of good and evil also developed during this period.[7] During the New Kingdom of Egypt, the popularity of wisdom literature and educational works persisted, though the use of teachings and stories was prioritized over the use of discourses. Entertainment literature was popular among the nobility during this period, incorporating aspects of narrative myth and folklore, religious hymns, love songs, and praise for the king and the city.[8]

Ancient China

Main articles: Chinese classics and Classical Chinese poetry

Zhou dynasty

The Analects of Confucius

Six Classics as founding texts of Confucianism, and they became the central texts by which other works were compared in Chinese literary scholarship. Confucianism dominated literary tastes in Ancient China starting in the Warring States period.[11] The sayings of Confucius were later compiled into the Analects by his students.[12]

Anthologies were common in Ancient China, and anthologizing was used as a means of literary criticism to determine literary classics.[11] The Classic of Poetry, one of the Six Classics, is the oldest existing anthology of Chinese poetry. It comprises 305 works by anonymous authors dating from the 12th to 7th centuries BC. Prior to the collection of these works, poetic tradition in Ancient China was primarily oral.[13] The Chu Ci anthology is a volume of poems from the Warring States period written in Chu and attributed to Qu Yuan. These poems were written as rhapsodies that were meant to be recited with a specific tone rather than sung.[14] The Music Bureau was developed during the Zhou dynasty, establishing a governmental role for the collection of musical works and folk songs that would persist throughout Chinese history.[15]

Historical documents developed into an early form of literature during the Warring States period, as documentation was combined with narrative and sometimes with legendary accounts of history.[16] Two of the Six Classics, the Book of Documents and the Spring and Autumn Annals, are historical documents. The latter inspired works of historical commentary that became a genre in their own right, including the Zuo Zhuan, the Gongyang Zhuan, and the Guliang Zhuan. The Zuo Zhuan is considered to be the first large scale narrative work in Chinese literature.[17] The Art of War by Sun Tzu was an influential book on military strategy that is still referenced in the modern era.[18]

Qin and Han dynasties

Further information: Han poetry

Poetry written in the brief period of the Qin dynasty has been entirely lost. Poetry in the Han dynasty diverged as several branches developed, including short length, paralleled exposition, rhymed exposition, and ancient style, and idealism also became popular during the Han dynasty.[11] The Nineteen Old Poems were written at this time, though how they came about is the subject of debate.[19] Poetry during this period abandoned tetrasyllabic verse in favor of pentasyllabic verse. The ballads of Chu spread through China and became widely popular, often focusing on concepts of inevitable destiny and fate.[20]

Political and argumentative literature by government officials dominated Chinese prose during this period, though even these works often engaged in lyricism and metaphor.

The Faults of Qin. Chao Cuo was an essayist known for treatises that were meticulous rather than emotional. Confucianism continued to dictate philosophical works, though a movement of works criticizing contemporary application of Confucianism began with Wang Chong in his Lunheng. Prose literature meant for entertainment also developed during this period.[21] Historical literature was revolutionized by the Records of the Grand Historian, the first general history of ancient times and the largest work of literature to that point in time.[22]

Six Dynasties

Further information: Six Dynasties poetry

Centralism declined during the Six Dynasties period, and Confucianism lost influence as a predominating ideology. This caused the rise of many local traditions of philosophical literature, including that of Taoist and Buddhist ideas.[23] Prose fiction during the Wei and Jin dynasties consisted mainly of supernatural folklore, including those presented as historical.[24] This tradition of supernatural fiction continued during the Northern and Southern dynasties with the Records of Light and Shade attributed to Liu Yiqing.[25] Another genre of prose was collections of short biographical or anecdotal impressions, of which only A New Account of the Tales of the World survives.[26]

Jian'an poetry developed from the literary tradition of Eastern Han, incorporating idiosyncrasies and strong demonstrations of emotion to express individualism. This movement was led by then-ruler of China Cao Cao. The poetry of Cao Cao consisted of ensemble songs published through the Music Bureau and performed with music.[27] The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove were influential poets in the Wei dynasty mid-3rd century, addressing political and philosophical concerns directly in their poetry.[28] Chinese poetry developed significantly during the Jin dynasty, incorporating parallelism, prosody, and emotional expression through scenery. Zhang Hua, Lu Ji, and Pan Yue are recognized as the great poets that developed early Western Jin poetry.[29] Zuo Si and Liu Kun were poets in later Western Jin.[30] In Eastern Jin, philosophical poetry went through a period of abstraction that removed much of its literary elements. Guo Pu and Tao Yuanming were notable poets in Eastern Jin.[31]

The popularity of literary poetry and

Northern dynasties saw little cultural growth due to their instability, and Northern literature of this time was typically influenced by the Southern dynasties.[34] Shanshui poetry also became prominent in Six Dynasties poetry.[11]

Levant

Main article: Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions

Ancient literature of the Levant was written in the

ostraca, ornaments, and range from simple names to full texts.[35][36][37][38]

The books that constitute the

various authors[39] over a period of centuries, with many scholars concluding that the Hebrew canon was solidified by about the 3rd century BC.[40][41] The New Testament was an additional collection of books that supplemented the Hebrew Bible, consisting of the gospels that described Jesus and the epistles written by notable figures of early Christianity.[42]

Classical antiquity

Ancient Greece

Main article: Ancient Greek literature
A scene from the Odyssey portrayed in an Ancient Roman mosaic

Early Greek literature was composed in dactylic hexameter. Homer is credited with the codification of epic poetry in Ancient Greece with the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hesiod is credited with developing a literary tradition of poetry derived from catalogues and genealogies, such as the Megala Erga and the Theogony. Notable writers of religious literature also held similar prominence at the time, but these works have since been lost.[43] Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho, who contributed to the development of lyric poetry and was widely popular in antiquity.[44]

Ancient Greek plays originate from the chorus plays of Athens in the 6th century BC as a tradition to honor Dionysus, the god of theater and wine. Greek plays came to be associated with "elaborate costumes, complex choreography, scenic architecture, and the mask". They were often structured as a tetralogy in which three tragedies were followed by a satyr play. Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were known for their tragedies, while Aristophanes and Menander were known for their comedies.[45] Sophocles is most well known for his play Oedipus Rex, which established an early example of literary irony.[46]

Ancient Greek philosophy was developed as the foundation of Western philosophy. Thales of Miletus was the first person in recorded history to engage in Western philosophy. The Ancient Greek philosophical literature was advanced by Plato, who incorporated philosophical debates into dialogues with Socratic questioning. Aristotle, Plato's student, wrote dozens of works on many scientific disciplines.[47] Aristotle also developed early literary criticism and literary theory in his Poetics.[46]

Ancient Rome

Main article: Latin literature

In the Roman Republic, literature took the form of tragedy, comedy, epic, and historical. Livius Andronicus is recognized as the originator of literature in the Latin language, and due to Rome's influence, the development of Latin literature often extended beyond the traditional boundaries of Rome. Plautus was an influential playwright known for his comedies that emphasized humor and popular culture. The late republic saw the rise of Augustan literature and Classical Latin, which was primarily prose and included the works of Cicero and Sallust. Upon the formation of the Roman Empire, political commentary declined and prose went out of favor to be replaced by poetry. Poets such as Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Ovid are recognized as bringing about the Golden Age of Latin literature.[48] Virgil's epic poem the Aeneid closely followed the formula established by Homer.[49]

Prominent Latin authors that lived during the early empire included Pliny the Elder, Seneca the Younger, and Emperor Marcus Aurelius. As the Roman Empire grew, Latin literature increasingly came from Spain and Northern Africa. Historical works of the early empire included the epic Pharsalia by Lucan, which followed Caesar's civil war, and the Annals of Tacitus, which recorded the events of the first century.[50] The Golden Ass by Apuleius was written in the later Empire and is possibly the world's oldest novel.[51] The adoption of Christianity in the Roman Empire became apparent in Latin literature, most notably in the confessional writing of Augustine of Hippo, such as the Confessions.[52]

Ancient India

Further information: Tamil literature, Indian literature, Kannada literature, Telugu literature, and Sanskrit literature

Knowledge traditions in India handed down philosophical gleanings and theological concepts through the two traditions of

Sanskrit poetry and the compilation of the Puranas
.

Post-classical (5th century–15th century)

Main articles: Early medieval literature and Medieval literature

Medieval Europe

After the fall of Rome (in roughly 476), many of the literary approaches and styles invented by the Greeks and Romans fell out of favor in Europe. In the

Florentine Renaissance, medieval literature focused more and more on faith and faith-related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had not been preserved in Europe, and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond. Although much had been lost to the ravages of time (and to catastrophe, as in the burning of the Library of Alexandria), many Greek works remained extant: they were preserved and copied carefully by Muslim scribes. What little there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions. Some of these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described as Matter of Rome, Matter of France and Matter of Britain.[citation needed
]

Around 400 AD, the Prudenti

Islamic emphasis on scientific investigation and the preservation of the Greek philosophical writings would also affect European literature.[citation needed
]

passion plays that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common people.[citation needed
]

Latin continued to be used as a literary language in medieval Europe. Though it was also spoken, it was primarily learned and expressed through literature, and scientific literature was typically written in Latin.[53] Christianity became increasingly prominent in medieval European literature, also written in Latin. Religious literature in other languages proliferated during the 13th century as those who were not educated in Latin sought religious literature that they could understand. Women in particular were not permitted to learn Latin, and an extensive body of religious literature in many languages was written by women at this time.[54]

Medieval England

Early Medieval literature in England was written in

Arthurian fantasy based on the legendary character of King Arthur. Literature in the modern English language began with Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, known for The Canterbury Tales.[55]

Medieval Italy

The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio was published in 1351, and it influenced European literature over the following centuries. Its framing device of ten individuals each telling ten stories introduced the term novella and inspired later works, including Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.[56]

Islamic world

See also: Islamic literature
Arabic manuscript of the One Thousand and One Nights

The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was

Persian Queen Scheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[57] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[57] This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[58] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[59]

Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[61]

Arabic literature

Main articles:
Literature of Morocco

desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[62][63]

Theologus Autodidactus deals with various science fiction elements such as

science and philosophy through the use of fiction.[64]

A

Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf. Among other innovations in Arabic literature was Ibn Khaldun's perspective on chronicling past events—by fully rejecting supernatural explanations, Khaldun essentially invented the scientific or sociological approach to history.[citation needed
]

Persian literature

Main articles:
Pahlavi literature

Omar Khayyám (1048–1122). "Rubaiyat" means "quatrains": verses of four lines. Amir Arsalan
was also a popular mythical Persian story.

Examples of early Persian proto-

flying carpet.[70]

Ottoman literature

Main article:
Ottoman literature
See also:
Poetry of the Ottoman Empire and Prose of the Ottoman Empire

The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are

romance, short story, or novel (though analogous genres did, to some extent, exist in both the Turkish folk tradition and in divan poetry). Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose never managed to develop to the extent that contemporary divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec' (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose,[71][failed verification] a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a sentence, there must be a rhyme.[citation needed
]

Post-classical Hebrew literature

Further information: Jewish literature and Hebrew literature

Medieval Jewish fiction often drew on ancient

legal (halakhic) literature, and commentaries on the Bible.[citation needed
]

Medieval India

Further information: Indian literature

Sanskrit declines in the early 2nd millennium, late works such as the

Middle Indic vernaculars such as Old Bengali, Old Hindi.[citation needed
]

Mid-imperial China

Further information: Chinese literature

Sui and Tang dynasties

erotic poetry. Li Shangyin and Wen Tingyun were influential poets during this period.[80]

Fictional narrative became prominent in the Tang dynasty, written with looser restrictions on form and length.

block printing.[citation needed
]

Song and Jin dynasties

Printing first became widespread in the

Northern Song. Northern Song lyric poetry was developed by Yan Shu, Liu Yong, and Zhang Xian, and it became a popular pastime among the lower class.[86] Ouyang Xiu developed the popular style of lyric poetry while Yan Jidao developed the refined style.[87] Lyric poetry contrasted with the more formal shi poetry that followed canonical literary forms and was used by scholars.[86] Political pressures heavily influenced the poetry of scholars in the Northern Song, as proficiency in older styles was a requirement for scholars to enter into civil service.[88] Politics and Confucianism in particular increasingly influenced poetry in Northern Song. Poets such as Mei Yaochen and Su Shunquin developed the style of poetry used in the Middle Northern Song.[89] Ouyang Xiu was a prominent literary scholar in Northern Song that refined the mainstream literary style of the time,[90] and Su Shi is said to have perfected it.[91]

Chen Yuyi defined the style of Early Southern Song poetry.[92] Lu You was a poet in the Middle Southern Song that wrote extensively about political life in civil service and frustration with the dynasty's weakened position in the Jin–Song Wars, while Xin Qiji was a Middle Southern Song poet that wrote on similar topics from a military perspective.[93] Poetic style did not advance significantly in the Late Southern Song, though Yan Yu's Canglang Shihua was influential in poetic theory.[94] Classical poetry in the Early Jin emphasized emotion, while elegance was emphasized later in the Jin dynasty.[95]

Popular fiction was typically performed in the Song dynasty, made up primarily of small talk fiction and historical tales. Classical prose fiction in the Song dynasty often sacrificed linguistic quality and imagination for plain language and moral teaching. Zaju variety plays developed during the Song dynasty as a predecessor to drama.[96] The scientist, statesman, and general Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) was the author of the Dream Pool Essays (1088), a large book of scientific literature that included the oldest description of the magnetized compass. During the Song dynasty, there was also the enormous historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian, compiled into 294 volumes of 3 million written Chinese characters by the year 1084 AD.[citation needed] The Jin dynasty saw advances in popular literature, including Romance of the Western Chamber.[97]

Yuan dynasty

Drama was significantly developed as a literary form in the Yuan dynasty and made up much of the era's fictional works.[98] Variety plays were influential in the Early Yuan period, with Khanbaliq, present-day Beijing, as the cultural center of variety plays.[99] As the 14th century began, variety play writers moved to Hangzhou, though variety plays declined and they did not achieve the same prominence.[100] The nanxi was developed as a genre of play at the same time, reflecting the unique political life of the Yuan dynasty in which civil service, infidelity, and inter-clan politics all played a major role. Tale of the Pipa by Gao Ming was an influential nanxi drama.[101] Qu was a common type of poetry in the Yuan dynasty that was used both as a standalone work and part of the structure of a play.[102]

Two of the earliest Chinese novels, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin, first appeared in the Yuan dynasty.[103] Poetry in the Yuan dynasty remained the primary form of expression for classical writers, though the Song tradition of intellectual poetry was replaced by poetry that expressed strong emotion. Northern Yuan poetry was influenced by the works of Yuan Haowen while Southern Yuan poetry was influenced by Yan Yu.[98]

Classical and feudal Japan

Main articles:
List of Japanese classic texts
Illustrated 13th century copy of The Tale of Genji

Classical Japanese literature generally refers to literature produced during the Heian period. Japanese literature first diverged from Chinese literature around the eighth century.[104] Fudoki were eighth century records that were typically written in Chinese and documented both historical and mythological stories.[105] Folk ballads were also common, including those recorded in the fudoki and musical ballads. These ballads were written to be chanted and often had a syllabic structure, with the tanka being highly regarded in particular.[106] The writing of waka poetry became increasingly important in the Heian period as it became a necessary skill for the aristocracy in both social and courtship settings.[107] The iroha poem, now one of two standard orderings for the Japanese syllabary, was also written during the early part of this period.[citation needed]

The Man'yōshū is the oldest collection of Japanese poetry, written in Japanese with Chinese characters through Man'yōgana and compiling waka poetry from the fifth to eighth centuries.[108] The Kokin Wakashū was a collection of ninth century waka poetry compiled by imperial command. While the Man'yōshū was varied in the classes and professions of its writers, the poems of the Kokin Wakashū were limited to those of aristocratic poets.[109] The Tales of Ise is a collection of loosely connected poems and narratives based on the life of Ariwara no Narihira.[110] The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter can be considered an early example of proto-science fiction, written in the 10th century. The protagonist of the story is a princess from the Moon who is sent to Earth for safety during a celestial war, and a manuscript illustration depicts a disc-shaped flying object similar to a flying saucer.[111]

Utsubo Monogatari and Ochikubo Monogatari were early prose works from the 10th century that realistically portrayed the lives of the aristocracy, and the former is sometimes considered to be the first novel.[112] At the same time, women of the aristocracy began keeping diaries that followed aristocratic life.[113] The Tale of Genji was the next major prose work in Japan, written in the 11th century.[114] Its use of realism and romantic idealization inspired later works of Heian period prose fiction, including historical works such as Eiga Monogatari and Ōkagami; romantic novels such as The Tale of Sagoromo, Yoru no Nezame, Hamamatsu Chūnagon Monogatari, and Torikaebaya Monogatari; and short story collections such as Tsutsumi Chūnagon Monogatari.[115] While these stories typically portrayed the aristocracy, Konjaku Monogatarishū was written in the 12th century, compiling roughly one thousand stories from different walks of life in Japan, China, and India.[116] Japanese literature expanded beyond the aristocracy in the 13th century and became increasingly accessible to lower classes, often through the narration of religious texts such as The Tale of the Heike by blind priests.[117] In the 14th and 15th centuries, poetry such as renga and drama such as noh and kyōgen was written by professional writers under the patronage of the court, temples, or local lords.[118]

Southeast Asia

The literary tradition of

Kawi language is most well known for kakawin poetry. These were narrative poems based on the traditions of Sanskrit poetry, and they often incorporated religious elements. The oldest surviving kakawin is Kakawin Ramayana from the 9th century, a Javanese localization of the Sanskrit Bhaṭṭikāvya.[119]

Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

Further information: Mesoamerican literature

Mesoamerican literature was typically recorded on codices, though most surviving codices of pre-Columbian literature were written in the Latin alphabet to preserve oral tradition after colonization. Nahuatl literature was divided into cuícatl, which included song and poetry, and tlahtolli, which included prose works of history and discourses. The teocuícatl were divine hymns that were sung to praise the gods, while other Nahuatl poetry was sung in celebration of life and friendship, to honor warriors, or to pose philosophical questions. King Nezahualcoyotl of Tetzcoco was a notable poet and songwriter.[120]

Literature in the Mayan languages was closely related to oral tradition in which writing guided memorized passages that were often performed. It was highly symbolic and incorporated heavy use of wordplay. Metaphor and imagery involving the natural world was also common. Mayan literature was often religious in nature, including information on religious practices, divination, and the gods. Much of this literature was later condemned as heretical and destroyed by Christian priests. The Dresden Codex, the Paris Codex, and the Madrid Codex are the only surviving pre-Columbian Mayan codices. Notable surviving Mayan texts include the Popol Vuh, the Chilam Balam, and the Annals of the Cakchiquels that describe the religious beliefs of Mesoamerican cultures.[120]

Early modern (15th century–18th century)

Main article:
Early Modern literature
Further information: 15th century in literature, 16th century in literature, and 17th century in literature

Early modern Europe

Main article: Western literature

The Renaissance encompassed much of European culture during the early modern period. This period saw a renewed interested in the classical works of Ancient Greece and Rome and a proliferation of artistic and scientific achievement. Literature, as with most forms of art in the early modern period, was financed through patronage by nobles. Fiction writing was not considered a profession in its own right and was typically undertaken by those who already possessed independent wealth.[121] The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century revolutionized European literature. The production of printed books allowed for more uniformity in literary works and the spread of literacy. Religious literature in particular was affected by the printing press, as churches funded and involved themselves in the printing process. Literary criticism also developed as literary works became more accessible.[122]

The form of writing now commonplace across the world—the

De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium: in it, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus removed the Earth from its privileged position in the universe, which had far-reaching effects, not only in science, but in literature and its approach to humanity, hierarchy, and truth.[citation needed
]

Plays for entertainment (as opposed to religious enlightenment) returned to Europe's stages in the early modern period.

en travesti) but that would change, first in France and then in England too, by the end of the 17th century.[citation needed
]

British literature

Further information: British literature

As England grew to become a world power, focus on England itself appeared in English literature. This tradition began with The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, written through the 1590s in honor of Queen Elizabeth I.[123] Metaphysical poetry developed in the 17th century, led by John Donne, most well known for his love poems.[124] The Augustan literature movement developed in the 18th century, led by Samuel Johnson, seeking to imitate the classical tastes of Ancient Greece and Rome. Augustan critics condemned metaphysical poetry for its frivolity and subversion.[125] John Milton wrote the epic poem Paradise Lost to create an English Christian epic that rivaled those of Homer and Virgil.[126] During the rule of Oliver Cromwell in the 1650s, the arts were restricted along Puritan ideals. This censorship contributed to the fall of the Commonwealth of England and the restoration of the British monarchy. Under the restored monarchy, the arts were freer than they had been previously, and King Charles II became a patron of the theater.[56]

William Shakespeare was a famed playwright in the late-16th and early-17th centuries, and he is generally recognized as the greatest author in the English language. He is known for his comedies, his dramas, and his histories, as well as his use of

fantasy novel to English literature, most notably through Gulliver's Travels, which was similarly marketed as a true story.[128]

French literature

Further information: French literature

Gargantua and Pantagruel was written by François Rabelais in five parts throughout the mid-16th century. It was an early influence of the novel, using an informal style and subversive humor.[56]

The 17th century in France is known as the

Grand Siècle (Great Century). The most famous French authors, beside playwrights, include Jean de La Fontaine and Charles Perrault known primarily for their fables.[citation needed
]

Italian literature

Further information: Italian literature

The Italian Renaissance was the starting point of what would become the European Renaissance over the following centuries.[121]

The earliest work considered an opera in the sense the work is usually understood dates from around 1597. It is Dafne, (now lost) written by Jacopo Peri for an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who gathered as the "Camerata".[citation needed]

Spanish literature

Further information: Spanish literature

chivalric romance.[56] The 16th and 17th centuries are recognized as the Spanish Golden Age
.

Early modern Islamic world

Further information: Islamic literature

Early modern East Asia

Qing dynasty

Further information: Chinese literature and Ming poetry
An illustrated copy of Journey to the West

Printing became prominent in China during the Ming dynasty in the beginning of the 16th century. By this time, urban areas were highly literate, assisted by the availability of paper in China. Written works were divided into four categories, including classics, histories, philosophy, and belles-lettres.[129] Among the lower class, aria and folk songs were common, often performed by entertainers.[130] Literature was suppressed by the Ming dynasty's founding Hongwu Emperor, and writers that did not comply with his rule were executed, beginning a decline in Chinese literature in the 14th and 15th centuries.[131] Jiandeng Xinhua by Qu You was a collection of supernatural and chuanqi stories, and it was one of the few works that maintained influence despite the suppression of literature.[132] Variety plays were the most common type of drama in the Early Ming period, and Prince Zhu Youdun was the most influential playwright of the time.[133] A literary revival took place in the Middle Ming period. The revival of poetry was led by literary groups such as the Four Talents of Suzhou and the Earlier Seven Masters and continued by groups such as the Tang-Song School and the Latter Seven Masters. Xu Wei became an influential poet and prose writer after his death for his use of authenticity and his rejection of the preceding literary schools.[134] Early Chinese novels were developed in the Middle Ming period, including works such as Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Journey to the West.[135]

In the Late Ming period, literature increasingly focused on the role of individuals within a society, beginning with the works of Li Zhi.[136] Chinese philosophy developed humanist elements that challenged subservience to community and imperial hierarchy.[131] The Gong'an School, led by the Three Yuan Brothers, produced literature of "natural sensibility" that favored delight and simplicity over reason and ambition.[137] The Jingling School, led by Zhong Xing and Tan Yuanchun, was a response to the Gong'an School that accepted the concept of "natural sensibility" but rejected the carefree style of Gong'an poetry.[138] Novels became more common in the Late Ming period as book publishers emerged.[139] Jin Ping Mei is recognized as a great novel of the Late Ming period and the first novel to follow day-to-day life of commoners.[140] Huaben stories were also common in this period, such as those collected by Feng Menglong in the Three Words and by Ling Mengchu in Slapping the Table in Amazement.[141] Dramas became more common in the Late Ming period as it became fashionable for the aristocracy to entertain guests with private theater troupes. Tang Xianzu was an influential playwright of this period, and the Wujiang School led by Shen Jing was responsible for expanding upon drama as an artform with emphasis on its musical elements.[142]

Japanese literature

Further information: Japanese literature

Wood block printing became popular in the 17th century, and over a thousand books were sold annually by 1670. By the 17th century, increasing social divisions separated drama, with samurai watching noh and chōnin watching kabuki. Writers typically dedicated themselves to the government, to a specific clan, to the commons, or to a reclusive lifestyle. Ishikawa Jōzan was an influential 17th century poet.[143]

Korean literature

Further information: Korean literature

Korean literature diverged from Chinese literature in the Joseon dynasty. The akjang, the sijo, and the gasa are forms of lyric composition that were popular in the Joseon dynasty.[144] Yongbieocheonga was a major collection of poems produced in the 1440s.[145] Korean vernacular fiction was developed by Heo Gyun at the beginning of the 17th century with Hong Gildong jeon.[146] The structure of Hong Gildong jeon was used to develop heroic fiction. The Cloud Dream of the Nine was written by Kim Man-jung to reflect historical and philosophical changes of the time using dream structure.[147] Pansori fiction was developed in the early 18th century.[148]

Early modern Southeast Asia

Further information: Cambodian literature, Vietnamese literature, and Thai literature

Early modern India

Further information: Indian literature

Pre-colonial Africa

Further information: African literature

Late modern (18th century–20th century)

Further information:
18th century literature, 19th century in literature, and 20th century in literature

Late modern Europe

The 18th century was

Modernist literature was written from roughly 1900 to 1940.[citation needed
]

In Britain, the 19th century was dominated by the

gothic novel. Charles Dickens, perhaps the most famous novelist in the history of English literature, was active during this time and contributed to the novel's emergence as the leading literary genre of Victorian England.[citation needed
]

In Romania, the first novels were plublished in the 19th century by Dimitrie Bolintineanu and Nicolae Filimon. During the same century, one of the most-known Romanian poets was Mihai Eminescu.

In Denmark, the early 19th century Golden Age produced prolific literary authors such as Søren Kierkegaard and Hans Christian Andersen.[citation needed]

In Germany, the

Goethe's activity, covering the first third of the century. The conservative Biedermeier style conflicts with the radical Vormärz in the turbulent period separating the end of the Napoleonic wars from the Revolutions of 1848.[citation needed
]

United States

Further information: American literature
1884 cover of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

Literature of the

sea stories, novels of manners, political satire, dynastic novels, and frontier stories.[152] Edgar Allan Poe was highly influential in fiction writing, poetry, and essays, and he is particularly credited for his contributions to Gothic fiction and mystery fiction as genres.[153] Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote moralistic stories such as The Scarlet Letter inspired by colonial-era Puritan literature. Herman Melville explored human contradiction in sea stories such as Moby-Dick, though his work did not become influential until the 1920s.[154] William Cullen Bryant was credited as the "founding father of American poetry", Walt Whitman is celebrated as defining the essence of America in his day with his poetry collection Leaves of Grass. Emily Dickinson was refused to publish her poetry during her lifetime, but her works of this period were later acclaimed.[155]

Transcendentalism evolved as a philosophical school in the early-19th century, and authors such as Ralph Waldo Emerson contributed to transcendentalist literature.[156] Many works were written on the topic of slavery in the early United States, including Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe.[157] Freed slaves such as Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs also wrote autobiographies that promoted the cause of abolitionism.[158] Native American literature in the early-19th century was in conflict between retaining traditional elements and incorporating elements of contemporary American literature.[159] Realism and naturalism became popular in the United States in the late-19th century. Mark Twain saw wide acclaim for his novels, including Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Regionalism developed in which different literary traditions evolved in the West, the Midwest, the South, and New England. African American and Native American literature also evolved as distinct literary traditions.[160]

A movement of backlash against small-town and middle-class values emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, including authors such as Theodore Dreiser, H. L. Mencken, Sinclair Lewis, and Sherwood Anderson.[161] Civil rights literature of the early-20th century was written by authors such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, and James Weldon Johnson.[162] American poetry expanded significantly during the 20th century, introducing or incorporating modernist poetry traditions such as Imagism, Vorticism, and Objectivism. Poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, and Robinson Jeffers were influential in developing poetic form.[163] Authors such as F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulkner analyzed their own places in American society through modernist novels,[164] while authors such as Thomas Wolfe and John Steinbeck sought to find a future identity for the United States.[165] Counter-movements emerged in response to modernism, including traditionalism in the South and populism in Chicago literature.[166] The early-20th century also saw the emergence of American drama distinct from that of Europe.[167] Popular genre fiction at the time included westerns and detective fiction.[168]

Canada

Further information: Canadian literature

Early Canadian novels adapted the literary trends of Europe. The History of Emily Montague was the first Canadian novel, published in 1769. The aftermath of the Seven Years' War was a significant influence on Canadian literature in the 18th and 19th centuries as French Canada was transferred to the British.[169] Popular novels, such as those of Julia Catherine Beckwith, came about in the early-19th century with an emphasis on day-to-day experiences rather than grand narrative.[170] Nature featured prominently in Canadian literature by the mid-19th century. Edward Hartley Dewart was a prominent figure in early Canadian poetry, having published the first Canadian poetry anthology in 1864. He identified the formation of a Canadian literary body as a part of a conflict between colonial origins and a distinct Canadian identity. Octave Crémazie led the French Canadian literature movement in the 1860s. Notable Canadian poets of this period included Charles Sangster, Alexander McLachlan, Charles Heavysege, and the Confederation Poets.[171] Victorian poetry remained prominent in Canada through the early-20th century, though international modernist movements such as Imagism gained influence after World War I. Poets such as Arthur Stringer and Frank Oliver Call lead a free verse movement in the 1910s and 1920s.[172]

Latin America

Further information: Latin American literature

Latin American literature diverged from European literature and began as its own literary tradition at the start of the 19th century. The primary change was in the subject matter and theme of the literature, while the form remained relatively European. It began with an individualist trend associated with the Latin American independence movements that were developing at the time. Within this movement developed the individual literature of each Latin American country as they formed their own national identities. Andrés Bello is recognized as a founder of modern literature in Hispanic America, and he is credited for popularizing Romanticism in the region. The balance of national and continental literary identities was a major issue in early Latin American literature, particularly within the Spanish language.[173]

Late modern Islamic world

Further information: Islamic literature

Late modern East Asia

Qing dynasty and Republic of China

Further information: Chinese literature and Qing poetry

The Qing dynasty saw the return of prose literature as a vehicle primarily for Confucian teaching, and individualist literature declined.[174] The Three Masters of Jiangdong were the most prominent poets during the transition from Ming to Qing.[175] Wang Shizhen led poetry trends in the Early Qing period through the expression of sentimentality through imagery and prosody rather than vocabulary, particularly with his Autumn Willows: Four Poems. Song lyrics also reemerged as a popular poetic form as literary critics viewed the individual aria as unrefined.[176] Heroic fiction was adapted to popular novels in the Early Qing period. Supernatural fiction also became popular, including Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio by Pu Songling.[177]

In the Middle Qing period, Shen Deqian, Weng Fanggang, and Yuan Mei each formed new trends in poetry in opposition to the style of Wang Shizhen.[178] Pianwen became popular among prose writers in the Middle Qing period in opposition to the Tongcheng school.[179] Six Records of a Floating Life was an autobiography by Shen Fu that emphasized direct language and emotional appeal over style.[180] Performing arts of the Middle Qing period included the northern guci drum lyric and the southern tanci strummed lyric, the latter of which was often written by women poets.[181] Novels of the Middle Qing period included The Scholars and Dream of the Red Chamber, both of which eschewed popular taste in favor of philosophy.[182] Drama went out of fashion among the Qing literati, though theatrical performances remained common entertainment for the public.[183] In the Late Qing period, Western culture was a significant influence on Chinese society.[184] The Tongguang school was popular among adherents to typical Chinese poetry, styled after that of the Song dynasty.[185] Chivalrous novels telling the tales of folk heroes, political novels that were critical of the falling Qing government, and genre fiction all became popular in the final years of the Qing dynasty.[186]

Literature in the

New Literature Movement in 1919, beginning with works such as Experiments by Hu Shih, Diary of a Madman by Lu Xun, and The Goddess by Guo Moruo. The May Fourth Movement was a further cultural movement that promoted the use of vernacular Chinese. Advocates of liberal reform in China supported these shifts in literary tradition to challenge imperial institutions, and these works typically supported humanism and individualism. A refutation of individualism emerged in response at the onset of the Chinese Civil War, and revolutionary literature was spread in support of the Chinese Red Army.[187]

Japanese literature

Further information: Japanese literature

Korean literature

Further information: Korean literature

Late modern Southeast Asia

Further information: Cambodian literature, Vietnamese literature, Thai literature, and Philippine literature

Late modern India

Further information: Indian literature

Colonial Africa

Further information: African literature

Contemporary (20th century–21st century)

Main article: Contemporary literature
Further information: 21st century in literature

Contemporary literature is defined as literature written after the end of World War II in 1945. Postmodern literature was written from roughly 1945 to 1980. Popular literature developed its own genres such as fantasy and science fiction. Ignored by mainstream literary criticism, these genres develop their own establishments and critical awards, such as the Nebula Award (since 1965), the British Fantasy Award (since 1971) or the Mythopoeic Awards (since 1971).[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ISBN 9781682172728
    .
  2. ^ Sutherland 2013, pp. 7–16.
  3. OCLC 418043692
    .
  4. ^ Street, Deb. "10 Of The Most Ancient Pieces Of Literature Ever Found". History Daily. Archived from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  5. ISBN 978-0-19-155572-5
    .
  6. ISBN 978-1-64602-030-0
    .
  7. ^
    S2CID 240659212. Archived
    from the original on 2022-08-25. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  8. ISBN 978-1-405-15598-4
    .
  9. ^ Luo 2011, p. 7.
  10. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 62–63.
  11. ^
    S2CID 195069499
    .
  12. ^ Luo 2011, p. 64.
  13. ISBN 9789629960483
    .
  14. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 31–35.
  15. ^ Luo 2011, p. 137.
  16. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 11–12.
  17. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 51–55.
  18. ^ Petraeus, David (2018-03-26). "'The Art of War': As relevant now as when it was written". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 2022-07-23. Retrieved 2022-09-14.
  19. ^ Luo 2011, p. 131.
  20. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 125–127.
  21. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 101–105.
  22. ^ Luo 2011, p. 113.
  23. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 149–150.
  24. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 189–190.
  25. ^ Luo 2011, p. 261.
  26. ^ Luo 2011, p. 263.
  27. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 152–154.
  28. ^ Luo 2011, p. 167.
  29. ^ Luo 2011, p. 173.
  30. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 178–180.
  31. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 181–184.
  32. ^ Luo 2011, p. 194.
  33. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 197–201.
  34. ^ Luo 2011, p. 233.
  35. ^ Mark Woolmer (ed.). "Phoenician: A Companion to Ancient Phoenicia". A Companion to Ancient Phoenicia, ed. Mark Woolmer: 4. Archived from the original on 2022-01-17. Retrieved 2022-01-17. Altogether, the known Phoenician texts number nearly seven thousand. The majority of these were collected in three volumes constituting the first part of the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (CIS), begun in 1867 under the editorial direction of the famous French scholar Ernest Renan (1823–1892), continued by J.-B. Chabot and concluded in 1962 by James G. Février. The CIS corpus includes 176 "Phoenician" inscriptions and 5982 "Punic" inscriptions (see below on these labels).
  36. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctvrxk44t.14. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2022-01-17. Of course, Donner and Röllig's three-volume handbook entitled KAI has been the gold standard for five decades now {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
    )
  37. ISBN 978-0-941664-01-1
    .
  38. ISBN 978-0-19-049934-1
    . Most estimates place it at around ten thousand texts. Texts that are either formulaic or extremely short constitute the vast majority of the evidence.
  39. ISBN 9780192806598. Archived
    from the original on 2022-09-14. Retrieved 2022-09-14.
  40. ISBN 978-0-19-285343-1
    .
  41. ^ Philip R. Davies in The Canon Debate, page 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty."
  42. ^ "The Bible". BBC. Archived from the original on 2022-10-10. Retrieved 2022-09-14.
  43. ^ Murray, Gilbert (1897). A History of Ancient Greek Literature. pp. 4–5.
  44. ISBN 978-1-107-02359-8
    .
  45. ISBN 978-1-60606-037-7. Archived
    from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-09-03.
  46. ^ a b Sutherland 2013, pp. 21–25.
  47. ^ Graham, Jacob N. "Ancient Greek Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2022-08-25. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  48. ^ Cohen 2017, pp. 45–48.
  49. ^ Cohen 2017, p. 54.
  50. ^ Cohen 2017, pp. 57–63.
  51. ^ Cohen 2017, p. 65.
  52. ^ Cohen 2017, pp. 70–71.
  53. JSTOR 468772. Archived
    from the original on 2022-08-26. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  54. ISBN 978-0-230-10719-9. Archived
    from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  55. ^ Sutherland 2013, pp. 26–28.
  56. ^ a b c d e Sutherland 2013, pp. 75–81.
  57. ^
    ISBN 0-312-19869-8
  58. ISBN 0-87054-076-9
  59. ISBN 0-312-19869-8
  60. ^ I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction", in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.
  61. ^ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London Archived 2008-06-26 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 14–15, Greater London Authority)
  62. ^ Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher Archived 2008-02-06 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
  63. ^ Nahyan A.G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", pp. 95–101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.[1] Archived 2015-04-04 at the Wayback Machine
  64. ^ Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher Archived 2008-02-06 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
  65. ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
  66. ISBN 0-7591-0190-6
    .
  67. ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357–77 [369].
  68. ^ Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts Archived 2008-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
  69. ISBN 0-19-820291-1
    .
  70. ^ Khammas, Achmed A. W. (2006-10-10). "The Almost Complete Lack of the Element of "Futureness"". heise.de. Archived from the original on 2006-10-25. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  71. ^ Belge, 389
  72. ^ "Jewish Literature". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on 2016-07-26. Retrieved 2022-02-02.
  73. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 251–253.
  74. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 268–275.
  75. ^ Luo 2011, p. 282.
  76. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 285–294.
  77. ^ Luo 2011, p. 411.
  78. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 310–311.
  79. ^ Luo 2011, p. 334.
  80. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 361–365.
  81. ^ Luo 2011, p. 391.
  82. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 396–397.
  83. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 403–405.
  84. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 305–308.
  85. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 376–379.
  86. ^ a b Luo 2011, pp. 428–429.
  87. ^ Luo 2011, p. 439.
  88. ^ Luo 2011, p. 461.
  89. ^ Luo 2011, p. 474.
  90. ^ Luo 2011, p. 480.
  91. ^ Luo 2011, p. 490.
  92. ^ Luo 2011, p. 508.
  93. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 525–533.
  94. ^ Luo 2011, p. 539.
  95. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 563–564.
  96. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 557–562.
  97. ^ Luo 2011, p. 507.
  98. ^ a b Luo 2011, p. 617.
  99. ^ Luo 2011, p. 575.
  100. ^ Luo 2011, p. 593.
  101. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 598–600.
  102. ^ Luo 2011, p. 605.
  103. ^ Luo 2011, p. 639.
  104. ^ Kato 1997, p. 12.
  105. ^ Kato 1997, p. 18.
  106. ^ Kato 1997, p. 21.
  107. ^ Kato 1997, pp. 57–58.
  108. ^ Kato 1997, p. 24.
  109. ^ Kato 1997, pp. 50–51.
  110. ^ Kato 1997, pp. 48–49.
  111. ISBN 978-1-875684-64-9 (cf. "Once Upon a Time", Emerald City (85), September 2002, archived
    from the original on 2019-09-11, retrieved 2008-09-17)
  112. ^ Kato 1997, p. 62.
  113. ^ Kato 1997, p. 68.
  114. ^ Kato 1997, pp. 72–73.
  115. ^ Kato 1997, p. 78.
  116. ^ Kato 1997, p. 84.
  117. ^ Kato 1997, p. 100.
  118. ^ Kato 1997, p. 112.
  119. S2CID 161351530. Archived
    from the original on 2022-08-27. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  120. ^
    S2CID 244159599. Archived
    from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  121. ^
    ISBN 9780748631216
    .
  122. ISBN 978-0-19-166875-3. Archived
    from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  123. ^ Sutherland 2013, p. 61.
  124. ^ Sutherland 2013, p. 54.
  125. ^ Sutherland 2013, p. 57.
  126. ^ Sutherland 2013, p. 64.
  127. ^ Sutherland 2013, pp. 40–44.
  128. ^ Sutherland 2013, pp. 82–87.
  129. ISBN 978-0-521-85559-4
    .
  130. ^ Luo 2011, p. 704.
  131. ^ a b Luo 2011, pp. 654–655.
  132. ^ Luo 2011, p. 719.
  133. ^ Luo 2011, p. 721.
  134. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 667–681.
  135. ^ Luo 2011, p. 728.
  136. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 684–685.
  137. ^ Luo 2011, p. 687.
  138. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 697–698.
  139. ^ Luo 2011, p. 743.
  140. ^ Luo 2011, p. 733.
  141. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 745–750.
  142. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 753–754.
  143. ^ Kato 1997, pp. 128–129.
  144. ^ Lee 2003, pp. 148, 168, 189.
  145. ^ Lee 2003, p. 151.
  146. ^ Lee 2003, p. 273.
  147. ^ Lee 2003, pp. 276–277.
  148. ^ Lee 2003, p. 284.
  149. ^ Gray 2011, p. 28.
  150. ^ Gray 2011, p. 41.
  151. ^ Gray 2011, p. 32.
  152. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 47–49.
  153. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 54–57.
  154. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 93–101.
  155. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 106–114.
  156. ^ Gray 2011, p. 59.
  157. ^ Gray 2011, p. 81.
  158. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 66–69.
  159. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 71–72.
  160. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 115–130.
  161. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 167–169.
  162. ^ Gray 2011, p. 159.
  163. ^ Gray 2011, p. 171.
  164. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 196–206.
  165. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 223–226.
  166. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 211–218.
  167. ^ Gray 2011, pp. 206–207.
  168. ^ Gray 2011, p. 242.
  169. ^ Lane 2011, p. 38.
  170. ^ Lane 2011, pp. 57–61.
  171. ^ Lane 2011, pp. 21–26.
  172. ^ Lane 2011, pp. 94–96.
  173. ISBN 9780521340694
    .
  174. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 787–788.
  175. ^ Luo 2011, p. 773.
  176. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 778–781.
  177. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 845–848.
  178. ^ Luo 2011, p. 793.
  179. ^ Luo 2011, p. 805.
  180. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 810–811.
  181. ^ Luo 2011, p. 819.
  182. ^ Luo 2011, p. 861.
  183. ^ Luo 2011, p. 839.
  184. ^ Luo 2011, p. 823.
  185. ^ Luo 2011, p. 827.
  186. ^ Luo 2011, pp. 882–886.
  187. ISBN 978-1-62320-079-4. Archived
    from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved 2022-09-21.

Bibliography

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_literature&oldid=1217304487"