History of martial arts

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Although the earliest evidence of

human physiology
and not dependent on a specific tradition or era.

Specific martial

Classical Antiquity, with disciplines such as shuai jiao, Greek wrestling or those described in the Indian epics or the Spring and Autumn Annals of China
.

Boxer of Quirinal
resting after contest (Bronze sculpture, 3rd century BCE)

Early history

Minoan youths boxing, reconstruction of a Knossos fresco (1500 BC). Earliest evidence for use of gloves.[dubious – discuss]

The earliest evidence for specifics of martial arts as practiced in the past comes from depictions of fights, both in

better source needed
]

The

stone axe, and diversify in shape in the course of the Bronze Age (khopesh/kopis, sword, dagger
)

Some early examples are the depiction of wrestling techniques in a tomb of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt at Beni Hasan (c. 2000 BC) and pictorial representations of fist fighting in the Minoan civilization dating to the 2nd millennium BCE.

In ancient

Mahabharatha
.

Africa

Detail of the wrestling fresco in tomb 15 at Beni Hasan.

An Egyptian fresco, dated to 3400 BC, and depicting military training at Beni Hassan is the world's oldest known artistic representation of an organised fighting system. In gymnasiums similar to those of Greece, recruits would practice wrestling, callisthenics and duelling with single-stick. The attacking weapon apparently had a basket-guard protecting the hand, while the left forearm had a splint strapped on to serve as a shield. Soldiers fought with spears, large shields with an eye-hole, clubs, axes, poleaxes, flails, bows, slings, and swords of various forms.

Later, martial styles as varied as Gidigbo (a form of wrestling practiced by the

Cunene river region of Angola), to name just a few, were developed by cultures all over Africa
.

Asia

Further information: Origins of Asian martial arts and Modern history of East Asian martial arts

China

Main article:
History of Chinese martial arts

Antiquity (Zhou to Jin)

A hand-to-hand combat theory, including the integration of notions of

"hard" and "soft" techniques, is expounded in the story of the Maiden of Yue in the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue (5th century BCE).[3]

The

jiǎolì
(角力).

Wrestling is also documented in the Shǐ Jì, Records of the Grand Historian, written by Sima Qian (c. 100 BCE).[4]

Jiǎolì is also mentioned in the

Classic of Rites (1st century BCE).[5]

In the 1st century, "Six Chapters of Hand Fighting", were included in the Han Shu (history of the Former Han Dynasty) written by Ban Gu. The

Five Animals concept in Chinese martial arts is attributed to Hua Tuo, a 3rd-century physician.[6]

Middle Ages

In the Tang dynasty, descriptions of sword dances were immortalized in poems by Li Bai and Du Fu. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, xiangpu (the earliest form of sumo) contests were sponsored by the imperial courts.[7]

In regard to the

Shaolin fighting system, the oldest evidence of Shaolin participation in combat is a stele from 728 CE that attests to two occasions: a defense of the Shaolin Monastery from bandits around 610 CE, and their subsequent role in the defeat of Wang Shichong at the Battle of Hulao
in 621 CE. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, there are no extant documents that provide evidence of Shaolin participation in combat.

Late Ming

The modern concepts of wushu emerge by the late Ming to early Qing dynasties (16th to 17th centuries).[8]

Between the 16th and 17th centuries there are at least forty extant sources which provided evidence that, not only did monks of Shaolin practice martial arts, but martial practice had become such an integral element of Shaolin monastic life that the monks felt the need to justify it by creating new

Buddhist lore.[9]

References of martial practice in Shaolin appear in various literary genres of the late Ming: the epitaphs of Shaolin warrior monks, martial-arts manuals, military encyclopedias, historical writings, travelogues, fiction, and even poetry. However these sources do not point out to any specific style originated in Shaolin.[10]

These sources, in contrast to those from the Tang period, refer to Shaolin methods of armed combat. This include the forte of Shaolin monks and for which they had become famous — the staff (gun); General Qi Jiguang included these techniques in his book, Treatise of Effective Discipline.[11]

India

Main article: Indian martial arts
See also: Dhanurveda and Kalaripayattu

Antiquity

Classical

knee strikes and headbutts.[15] Krishna Maharaja, who single-handedly overcame an elephant
according to the Mahabharata, is credited with developing the sixteen principles of armed combat.

Kalaripayattu, the most ancient and important form of India, was practiced in Kerala. Its origins date back to the 12th century. Unniyarcha, Aromal Chekavar and others were Thiyya warriors of Chekavar lineage. It was during their period that kalaripayattu spread widely in southern Kerala.[16][17]

Many of the popular sports mentioned in the Vedas and the epics have their origins in military training, such as boxing (musti-yuddha), wrestling (malladwandwa), chariot-racing (rathachalan), horse-riding (aswarohana) and archery (dhanurvidya).[18] Competitions were held not just as a contest of the players' prowess but also as a means of finding a bridegroom.

Ten fighting styles of northern India were said to have been created in different areas based on animals and gods, and designed for the particular geography of their origin. Tradition ascribes their convergence to the 6th-century in the Buddhist university of

Takshashila
, located in today's Punjab region.

Middle Ages

Like other branches of

bow and arrow
."

The

Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline ayurveda which was taught alongside various martial arts.[14] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that Indian subcontinent's early fighters knew and practised attacking or defending vital points.[21]

Fighting arts were not exclusive to the kshatriya caste, though the warrior class used the systems more extensively. The 8th-century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded such systems being taught at gurukula educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."

The earliest extant manual of Indian martial arts is contained as chapters 248 to 251 in the Agni Purana (c. 8th – 11th centuries), giving an account of dhanurveda in a total of 104 shloka.[21][22][23] These verses describe how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.

kicking
methods.

Japan

Main articles: Japanese martial arts and Okinawan martial arts

The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the

Koryū (古流) or old stream. Over time there was a trend away from the traditional purpose to a philosophy of coupling spiritual goals with the striving to perfect their martial skills.[citation needed
]

The Japanese Book of Five Rings dates to 1664.

Korea

Main article: Korean martial arts

Taekkyon is the traditional martial art of Korea. Taekkyon came into existence sometime before the Silla
dynasty united the peninsula. It is believed Taekkyon was known as Subak at that time. Taekkyon focuses on up-right fighting: footwork, kicks, strikes, blocks, throws and rhythm.

Ssireum is the traditional wrestling art of Korea. Gakjeochong (각저총:角抵塚) murals show that wrestling in Korea dates back as early as the pre-Three Kingdom era. The Book of Later Han, a Chinese document that was written either before or early in the history of the Three Kingdoms also has records of Korean wrestling.[citation needed] Ssireum first gained widespread popularity during the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910).

Two Korean martial arts manuals Muyejebo and Muyedobotongji date from 1598 and 1790, respectively.

Sri Lanka

Main article: Angampora

Angampora is an ancient Sri Lankan martial art that combines combat techniques, self-defense, sport, exercise, and meditation. According to apocryphal Sinhalese folklore, Angampora's history stretches to as far back as 3,000 years, with the Yaksha tribe (one of the four "hela" - the ancient tribes that inhabited the island) being identified as originators. With the advent of colonialism over the entirety of the island in 1815, Angampora fell into disuse and was very nearly lost as a part of the country's heritage. The British administration prohibited its practice due to the dangers posed by a civilian populace versed in a martial art, burning down any angan madu (practice huts devoted to the martial art) found: flouting of the law was punished by a gunshot to the knee, effectively crippling practitioners; Angampora nevertheless survived within a few families, allowing it to emerge into mainstream Sri Lankan culture post-independence.

Persia (Iran)

The traditional

Arsacid Parthian times (132 BCE - 226 CE), and is still widely practiced today in the region. Following the development of Sufi Islam
in the 8th century CE, varzesh-e pahlavani absorbed philosophical and spiritual components from that religion.

Pahlevani and zourkhaneh rituals is also an ancient martial art and the name inscribed by UNESCO for varzesh-e pahlavāni (Persian: آیین پهلوانی و زورخانه‌ای, "heroic sport")[25] or varzesh-e bāstāni (ورزش باستانی; varzeš-e bāstānī, "ancient sport"), a traditional system of athletics originally used to train warriors in Iran (Persia), and first appearing under this name and form in the Safavid era, with similarities to systems in adjacent lands under other names.[26][27]

Turkic

Other historical grappling styles from the region include

yağlı güreş
.

Arab

Further information: Furusiyya

The north Arabian tradition of horsemanship quickly became an integral part of warfare throughout the

charging with the lance. Armed fighting included the use of the sword (sayf), spear, lance, javelin, dagger (jambiya), staff, axe (tabar), warhammer, and curved bow. There is also Tahtib (التحطيب) which was practiced in ancient Egypt and is still performed in celebrations[citation needed
].

Europe

Main article: Historical European martial arts
Further information:
Ancient Greek Boxing

Antiquity

Pankratiast in fighting stance, Ancient Greek red-figure amphora, 440 BC.
Further information: Ancient warfare

European martial arts become tangible in Greek antiquity with pankration and other martially oriented disciplines of the ancient Olympic Games. Boxing became Olympic in Greece as early as 688 BCE. Detailed depictions of wrestling techniques are preserved in vase paintings of the Classical period. Homer's Iliad has a number of detailed descriptions of single combat with spear, sword and shield.

260s BCE
.

The papyrus fragment known as

P.Oxy. III 466
dating from the 2nd century gives the earliest surviving description in writing of wrestling techniques.

In

Mediterranean island, a fighting style which has been called istrumpa was practised in the Bronze Age
, as demonstrated by the finding of a little bronze statue (known as "Bronzetto dei lottatori" or "bronze of the fighting men"), which shows two fighters struggling with each other on the ground.

Middle Ages

Further information: Medieval warfare, Viking Age arms and armour, Holmgang, and Trial by combat
Fol. 4v of the I.33

Pictorial sources of medieval combat include the

Bayeux tapestry (11th century), the Morgan Bible
(13th century).

The

Icelandic sagas contain many realistic descriptions of Viking Age
combat.

The earliest extant dedicated

MS I.33 (c. 1300), detailing sword and buckler combat, compiled in a Franconian monastery. The manuscript consists of 64 images with Latin commentary, interspersed with technical vocabulary in German
. While there are earlier manuals of wrestling techniques, I.33 is the earliest known manual dedicated to teaching armed single combat.

tournament
were popular martial arts practiced by nobility throughout the High and Late Middle Ages.

The

Fechtbücher
.

Renaissance to Early Modern period

Further information: Early modern warfare

The late medieval German school survives into the

rapier fencing in the upper classes. Wrestling comes to be seen as an ignoble pursuit proper for the lower classes and until its 19th-century revival as a modern sport becomes restricted to folk wrestling
.

In the

terminology
still current in modern sports fencing.

There are also a number of Early Modern fencing masters of note in England, such as George Silver and Joseph Swetnam.

Mensur fencing
in the 18th

Modern history (1800 to present)

The Western interest in East Asian martial arts dates back to the late 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the West with

duelling sword among the upper classes on one hand, and various styles of folk wrestling
among the lower classes on the other.

English boxing and French folk kicking techniques. At that time, in France, it existed in gyms called salles d'armes where savate, English boxing, fencing, canne de combat and sometimes even wrestling
was practiced.

stick fighting. Also during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, catch wrestling contests became immensely popular in Europe
.

The development of

Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
from the early 20th century is a good example of the worldwide cross-pollination and syncretism of martial arts traditions.

The later 1970s and 1980s witnessed an increased media interest in the martial arts, thanks in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies and very popular television shows like "

The Green Hornet" that incorporated martial arts moments or themes. Following Bruce Lee, both Jackie Chan and Jet Li
are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting Chinese martial arts in recent years.

Combined Olympic medal table

Martial arts have been a part of the modern Olympic games since 1896. The following table is correct up to and including the

2021 Summer Games
.

Country
Fencing 		Wrestling
Boxing
Judo
Taekwondo
Karate 		Total
Greco-Roman Freestyle
Afghanistan Afghanistan 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
Algeria Algeria 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 8
Argentina Argentina 1 0 0 24 2 1 0 28
Armenia Armenia 0 8 1 2 0 0 0 11
Australia Australia 0 0 3 5 2 2 0 12
Australia Australasia 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Austria Austria 7 1 1 0 7 0 1 17
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan 0 7 18 9 5 3 2 44
Belarus Belarus 0 7 7 2 2 0 0 18
Belgium Belgium 10 0 3 4 13 0 0 30
Bermuda Bermuda 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Bohemia Bohemia 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Brazil Brazil 0 0 0 8 24 2 0 34
Bulgaria Bulgaria 0 32 39 19 3 0 1 94
Cameroon Cameroon 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
Canada Canada 0 0 17 17 7 2 0 43
Chile Chile 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3
China China 15 6 9 14 22 11 2 79
Chinese Taipei Chinese Taipei 0 0 0 1 1 9 1 12
Colombia Colombia 0 0 2 5 2 1 0 10
Croatia Croatia 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 6
Cuba Cuba 10 16 11 78 37 6 0 158
Czech Republic Czech Republic 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 5
Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia 0 11 4 6 1 0 0 22
Denmark Denmark 6 9 0 12 0 0 0 27
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 4
East Germany East Germany 1 4 3 13 9 0 0 30
Egypt Egypt 1 8 0 4 2 4 2 21
Estonia Estonia 2 8 3 1 3 0 0 17
Finland Finland 0 58 25 16 0 0 0 99
France France 123 9 9 25 57 8 1 232
Gabon Gabon 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Georgia (country) Georgia 0 8 11 1 12 0 0 32
Germany Germany 21 22 7 23 21 2 0 96
Ghana Ghana 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
United Kingdom Great Britain 9 0 17 62 20 9 0 117
Greece Greece 5 9 2 0 2 4 0 22
Guyana Guyana 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Hong Kong Hong Kong 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
Hungary Hungary 90 41 15 20 10 0 1 177
Iceland Iceland 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
India India 0 0 7 3 0 0 0 10
Iran Iran 0 9 38 0 0 6 1 54
Republic of Ireland Ireland 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 18
Israel Israel 0 0 0 0 6 1 0 7
Italy Italy 130 19 3 48 17 4 2 223
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3
Japan Japan 3 15 61 8 96 1 3 187
Jordan Jordan 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan 0 5 12 24 4 1 2 48
Kenya Kenya 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 7
Kosovo Kosovo 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3
Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan 0 3 3 0 1 0 0 7
Latvia Latvia 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2
Lebanon Lebanon 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3
Lithuania Lithuania 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 3
Mauritius Mauritius 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Mexico Mexico 1 1 0 13 0 7 0 22
Moldova Moldova 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 3
Mongolia Mongolia 0 0 10 7 11 0 0 28
Morocco Morocco 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
Unified Team at the Olympics Mixed team 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Netherlands Netherlands 5 0 0 8 24 0 0 37
New Zealand New Zealand 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
Niger Niger 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 2
Nigeria Nigeria 0 0 1 6 0 1 0 8
North Korea North Korea 0 1 9 8 8 0 0 26
North Macedonia North Macedonia 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
Norway Norway 1 5 3 5 0 2 0 16
Pakistan Pakistan 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2
Philippines Philippines 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 8
Poland Poland 22 21 6 43 8 0 0 100
Portugal Portugal 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 4
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 7
Taiwan ROC 8 3 5 6 3 4 0 29
Romania Romania 17 27 7 25 6 0 0 82
Russia Russia 26 22 34 30 16 4 0 132
Russia Russian Empire 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3
San Marino San Marino 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Serbia Serbia 0 2 0 0 0 4 1 7
Slovakia Slovakia 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2
Slovenia Slovenia 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 6
South Africa South Africa 0 0 0 19 0 0 0 19
South Korea South Korea 16 16 20 20 46 22 0 140
Soviet Union Soviet Union 49 60 56 51 23 0 0 239
Spain Spain 1 0 1 4 6 7 2 21
Sweden Sweden 7 58 28 11 0 0 0 104
Switzerland Switzerland 8 1 14 0 4 0 0 27
Syria Syria 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2
Tajikistan Tajikistan 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 3
Thailand Thailand 0 0 0 15 0 6 0 21
Tonga Tonga 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Tunisia Tunisia 1 0 1 2 0 2 0 6
Turkey Turkey 0 25 41 7 2 9 4 88
Uganda Uganda 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
Ukraine Ukraine 7 7 11 15 4 0 2 46
Unified Team at the Olympics Unified Team 5 9 7 2 4 0 0 27
United Arab Emirates UAE 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
United States United States 33 15 123 117 14 10 1 313
Germany United Team of Germany 4 7 2 6 2 0 0 21
Uruguay Uruguay 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Uzbekistan Uzbekistan 0 2 6 15 7 1 0 31
Venezuela Venezuela 1 0 0 6 0 2 0 9
Vietnam Vietnam 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
West Germany West Germany 16 5 4 6 8 0 0 39
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia 0 12 4 11 2 0 0 29
Zambia Zambia 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Totals 668 625 731 996 607 176 32 3835

Reconstruction

The reconstruction of a martial art as practiced in a specific period is distinct from the practice of a traditional fighting system handed down by way of master-student transmission. The largest movement of martial arts reconstruction is the

Historical European Martial Arts revival (HEMA), gaining momentum since the late 1990s. To a limited extent, there are also attempts to reconstruct other styles, such as Korean swordsmanship
and Persian armed combat called razmafzar.

The Japanese term

Koryū
refers to "old schools" of martial arts which predate 1868; it does not imply that historical styles are actively reconstructed, just that the school's tradition goes back 150 years or more.

A reconstructed martial art necessarily rests on historical records, either

Olympic fencing, or historical German ringen which over time developed into contemporary styles of folk wrestling. Claims of ancient martial arts which survive unchanged by unbroken tradition (e.g. as suggested by Yehoshua Sofer
), do not fall under reconstruction and are by their nature unverifiable, even to the person making the claim.

Certain

modern schools of Ninjutsu may fall under the category of martial arts reconstruction; the Bujinkan organization claims to base their teaching on a manuscript documenting a historical school, known as Togakure-ryū, dated to the 12th century. But as this manuscript is supposedly in the private possession of Masaaki Hatsumi, its authenticity, or indeed existence, cannot be verified by independent parties.[28]

See also

References

  1. ^ World grappling styles Archived 2015-01-01 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
  2. ^ a b c Iwona Czerwinska Pawluk and Walery Zukow (2011). Humanities dimension of physiotherapy, rehabilitation, nursing and public health. p. 21
  3. ^ trans. and ed. Zhang Jue (1994), pp. 367-370, cited after Hennin (1999) p. 321 and note 8.
  4. ^ Henning, Stanley E. (Fall 1999). Academia Encounters the Chinese Martial arts. China Review International 6 (2): 319–332. ISSN 1069-5834
  5. Classic of Rites
    . Chapter 6, Yuèlìng. Line 108.
  6. ISBN 0-313-27808-3
  7. ^ The customary Bowing of martial arts is thus due to the "transmission of the task or work to be carried out", in ancient times precisely for the reigning Empire
  8. ISBN 0-8351-1534-8
    .
  9. ^ Shahar, Meir (2000). "Epigraphy, Buddhist Historiography, and Fighting Monks: The Case of The Shaolin Monastery". Asia Major Third Series 13 (2): 15–36.
  10. ISSN 0073-0548
    .
  11. ^ Henning, Stanley (1999). "Martial arts Myths of Shaolin Monastery, Part I: The Giant with the Flaming Staff". Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii 5 (1), Shahar, Meir (2007), The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion and the Chinese Martial arts", Honolulu: The University of Hawai'i Press
  12. ^ Shamya Dasgupta (June–September 2004). "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story", Routledge 21 (3), p. 433-451.
  13. ^ Zarrilli, Phillip B. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. University of Wisconsin–Madison.
  14. ^ a b c d J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
  15. ^ Section XIII: Samayapalana Parva, Book 4: Virata Parva, Mahabharata.
  16. ISBN 9780190992071
    .
  17. ISBN 978-81-264-3782-5
    . Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  18. ISBN 0-7554-5162-7
    .
  19. ISBN 978-81-7625-226-3, s.v. "dhanurveda"
    ; Gaṅgā Rām Garg, Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World, Concept Publishing Company, 1992
    ISBN 978-81-7022-376-4
    , s.v. "archery".
  20. ^ G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita.
  21. ^ a b Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1992). "To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu". Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 1 (1).
  22. ^ P. C. Chakravarti (1972). The art of warfare in ancient India. Delhi.
  23. ^ GRETIL etext Archived 2009-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, based on Rajendralal Mitra, Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal 1870–1879, 3 vols. (Bibliotheca Indica, 65,1-3); AP 248.1-38, 249.1-19, 250.1-13, 251.1-34.
  24. ^ Nekoogar, Farzad (1996). Traditional Iranian Martial Arts (Varzesh-e Pahlavani). pahlvani.com: Menlo Park. Accessed: 2007-02-08
  25. ^ official IZSF
  26. ^ History of martial arts at Encyclopædia Iranica
  27. ^ "Pahlevani and Zoorkhanei rituals".
  28. ^ Watatani Kiyoshi and Yamada Tadashi (1963), Bugei Ryuha Daijiten, p. 293

Bibliography

  • Michael B. Poliakoff, Combat Sports in the Ancient World: Competition, Violence, and Culture Sports and History Series, Yale University Press (1987).
  • Thomas A. Green, Joseph R. Svinth (eds.), Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, 2010, two volumes: vol. 1: 'Regions and Individual Arts',
    ISBN 9781598842432
    .
Look up martial art in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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