History of military nutrition in the United States

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turkey on Thanksgiving during the Siegfried Line campaign
, 1944

The history of military nutrition in the United States can be roughly divided into seven historical eras,[1] from the founding of the country to the present day, based on advances in food research technology and methodologies for the improvement of the overall health and nutritional status of U.S. military service members. Through the research and guidance of medical and military professionals, rations and packaging have been consistently and dramatically improved.

General history

The first formal institution for U.S. military nutrition research was created in 1917, when the Surgeon-General's office established a Food Division for "safeguarding the nutritional interests of the Army."[2] Currently, the U.S. military nutrition research is presided over by the DoD Combat Feeding and Research Program (CFREP), providing a research, technology and engineering base for all combat feeding systems. The Army is the executive agent for the Combat Research and Engineering Board (CFREB; formerly known as the Food and Nutrition Research and Engineering Board).[3] Chaired by the office of the director, defense research and engineering, the CFREB includes representatives from Army Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps and the Defense Logistics Agency.

The Military Nutrition Division at the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM) has been at the forefront of Military Nutrition Research since 1986, and addresses physical, physiological and nutritional requirements of modern military personnel.

Eras

1775–1917

The camp kitchen of the Union Army 6th New York Heavy Artillery Regiment near Brandy Station, Virginia, 1864

In 1775, the Continental Congress stipulated that all enlisted persons of the Continental Army should receive peas, beans, or vegetables and one pint of milk per man in addition to their provision of meat and bread.[4] For the time, this was a significant recognition of the need to include fresh food in the military diet. As food preservation and refrigeration techniques had not been perfected at the time (late 18th century), perishables were rarely delivered in edible condition to soldiers in the field. Without fresh fruits and vegetables, many soldiers suffered death or illness by such diseases as scurvy. As a result, the overall health and morale of American soldiers suffered.[5][6]

Aware of the situation, General George Washington wrote a letter to Congress suggesting new personnel be hired to correct issues in the Commissary Department.[7] Congress then directed the Board of War to supply sauerkraut, vegetables, vinegar, beer and cider to troops.[8]

A few decades later, in response to a 12,000 franc award offered by

Nicholas Appert developed a method to preserve food in airtight bottles. Samples of Appert's preserved foods were sent to sea with Napoleon's men and the food remained fresh for several months. Ten years later, Pierre Durand, a British merchant, patented a similar method using tin-coated canisters, and by 1813, the British Army
and Navy were supplied with food preserved in tins.

During the American Civil War, conditions prevented adequate supply and delivery of all ration components to troops.[9] Typhoid, diarrhea, and dysentery, easily spread by contamination of water and food supplies, were widespread, and fatalities caused by these diseases were common.[10]

In 1861, the Army of Virginia published Directions for Cooking by Troops in Camp and Hospital,[11] an Army camp cooking manual written by Florence Nightingale. The recipes emphasized meat and milk for protein and whole grains, fruits, and vegetables for carbohydrates. The first US Family Food Guide (1916) was published 35 years later, with essentially similar recommendations.

In 1861, John Ordronaux's Hints on the Preservation of Health in the Armies[12] was published containing the first known dietary guidelines for soldiers, identifying priorities of an effective military diet.

After the Civil War, the 1892 ration was developed, providing for fresh meat, fish and vegetables. Although advances had been made in food processing, preservation, storage and refrigeration techniques, food often spoiled over long distances or in warm climates, as these techniques had not been perfected. During the Spanish–American War, many soldiers suffered serious illness as the result of rotten or fermented food.[13] Also in 1892, Captain Charles Woodruff conducted the first military nutrition survey, and earned the title "foremost student of the diet of the American soldier".[14] Through his research, he observed gradual improvement in the quality of Army rations and noted the need for further research and development to ensure the continuation of this trend.

While rations continued to improve, broad distribution of perishable foods did not occur until

rations, which lacked dairy and vegetable products. Problems such as these were overcome later with the development of the "New Army Ration".[13]

1917–1941

Facing food shortages in both military and civilian populations during

U.S. Army (established in 1918 by the War Department) instructed that nutritional surveys should be conducted to assess food requirements and economy. Findings showed that garrison rations were providing an excess of food, were nutritionally unbalanced and had a high fat content. Based on these findings, a new "training ration" was developed to avoid waste.[2]

The first issue of the Journal of Nutrition was published in 1928 by the American Institute of Nutrition (AIN). AIN was the first independent scientific society for researchers in the field of nutrition. It was cofounded by an Army nutrition officer, John R. Murlin.[15]

While military nutrition research came to a stop between World War I and World War II, the League of Nations established the Commission on Nutrition to make detailed recommendations based on sound scientific principles of nutrition. The Commission's Mixed Committee on the Problem of Nutrition published its final report, emphasizing the importance of foods such as green leafy vegetables, fruit and milk.[16]

1941–1953

Soldiers of the U.S. Army 37th Infantry Division being served food near La Roche-en-Ardenne, Belgium in 1945

In response to an observation of poor nutritional status among enlisting men, the

Recommended Dietary Allowances.[17]

The Medical Nutrition Laboratory (formerly the Food and Nutrition Laboratory, founded in 1942) along with the Medical Nutrition Laboratory of the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute developed and subsequently improved the individual

U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research Development and Engineering Center
.

1953–1974

A soldier with the U.S. Army 101st Airborne Division eating his first hot meal in several days during the Vietnam War in 1967

In 1958, the year the

Food Stamp program (1974), nutrition programs for the elderly, the Women, Infants and Children (WIC) supplemental nutrition program (1972), the United States Department of Agriculture
school breakfast program (permanently authorized in 1975), military dietary reform, and the establishment of NIH-funded Nutrition Research Centers.

1974–1980

The Letterman Army Institute of Research (LAIR) was at the forefront of Military Nutrition Research and conducted studies in various areas of medicine, optics, toxicology and nutrition throughout the latter half of the 1970s. Nutrition research targeted the development of new methodologies for the measurement of nutrient intake, identification of contaminants in food, assessment of the nutritional adequacy of the soldier's diet, and assessment of feeding system changes at selected military dining facilities. Scientists also conducted studies exploring the specific roles and mechanisms of nutrients such as vitamin A,[23] vitamin C,[24] carbohydrates,[25] thiamin,[26] iron[27] and several others. Although driven primarily by military concerns, scientists at LAIR and its predecessor labs also contributed essential knowledge to the general understanding of nutrition as it applies to the human body. Among other things, they established requirement recommendations for water, vitamins, and minerals and provided insight on the effects of calorie deprivation.

In the late 1970s, a series of Army management decisions and congressional directives threatened to abolish the nutrition research program at LAIR. Dr. Allan L. Forbes argued strongly for the continuation of nutrition research at LAIR, noting "it would be tragic in the extreme to see dissolution of the finest clinical nutrition research facility we have." The Army Nutrition Research Program was suspended in 1980 after Army and Congressional priority decisions. All assets from the Army's military nutrition program were transferred to the USDA's Western Human Nutrition Research Center in Davis, California.

1980–1986

U.S. Army officials in Hawaii testing then-experimental Meal, Ready-to-Eat rations in 1983

Although the Army Research Program had been suspended, the Department of Defense continued to conduct nutrition research. During the early 1980s, some military nutrition studies continued at the Naval Health Research Center, the

Natick Research and Development Laboratories, the Army Institute of Surgical Research, the Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, and the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
. After the National Research Council's Advisory Board on Military Personnel Supplies (ABMPS) observed that insufficient attention was paid to nutrition by armed services food programs, funding was granted to establish a Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) Committee on Military Nutrition Research (CMNR). Since its creation in 1982, the CMNR has published more than 50 reports containing analysis, guidance and recommendations to the Department of Defense on nutrition-related priorities.

During the 1980s, new feeding systems were developed, including the

U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine
. One of the Nutrition Task Force's first objectives was to complete an intensive field trial of rations to test ration acceptance and intake over extended periods of time. The second half of the 1980s saw continued investment in military nutrition research and in 1986, the Nutrition Task Force became the Military Nutrition Division.

1986–present

A cook of the U.S. Marines 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit preparing fresh meals aboard the USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)

In 1986, the U.S. Army retook the lead in basic and applied military nutrition science, presided over by the Department of Defense Combat Feeding and Research Program (CFREP), and providing a research, technology and engineering base for combat feeding systems. Since then, the Military Nutrition Division at the

U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine
(USARIEM) has been at the forefront of physical, physiological, and nutritional requirements research to address the needs of modern military personnel.

The Military Nutrition Division, in collaboration with the

food composition databases, and developed weight control intervention programs for soldiers.[30] This alliance has also allowed for investigation of performance-enhancing ration components (PERCs), improving human performance by at least 15%, and leading to developments such as the Soldier Fuel energy bar and the ERGO (Energy Rich Glucose Optimized) energy drink.[31]

During the 1990s, several nutrition studies were conducted, including studies on nutritional influences on immune function, nutritional interventions and susceptibility to disease during high-stress training, and the role of energy balance in disease resistance. The latter study directly led to changes in food allowances for

U.S. Army Ranger training and other high-intensity programs. In this period, the A-ration, B-ration, and T-ration were replaced by the Unitized Group Ration
.

Through modern research, ration and hydration requirements have been defined for soldiers and personnel working in high altitudes and in extreme temperatures. Working alongside scientists at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, scientists of the Military Nutrition Division at USARIEM continue to improve ration technologies, address nutrition concerns, establish new programs for soldier weight management and otherwise optimize soldier performance through military nutrition research.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ "military-nutrition.com". www.military-nutrition.com. Archived from the original on October 9, 2011. Retrieved 2023-09-05.
  2. ^ a b Murlin, J.R., Miller, C.W. "Preliminary Results of Nutritional Surveys in United States Army Camps". American Journal of Public Health. 9(6).
  3. ^ Department of Defense Directive 3235.2. May 21, 2004
  4. ^ Journals of the Continental Congress, November 4, 1775
  5. ^ Rush, Benjamin (1777). "Directions for preserving the health of soldiers" The Pennsylvania Packet, no. 284.
  6. ^ Gillett, Mary C. (1981), "The Army Medical Department, 1775–1818", Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army.
  7. ^ George Washington to Continental Congress Conference Committee, January 29, 1778
  8. ^ Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. Friday, March 13, 1778. p. 248–252.
  9. ^ "Food and Rations." Gale Library of Daily Life: American Civil War. Ed. Steven E. Woodworth. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2008. p15–18.
  10. ^ CivilWarHome.com. "Medical Care, Battle Wounds, and Disease." Archived February 2, 1999, at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ Nightengale, F. Directions for Cooking by Troops in Camp and Hospital. J.W. Randolph. Richmond, VA. 1861.
  12. ^ Ordronaux, J. Hints on Health in Armies for the Use of Volunteer Officers. 2nd Ed. D. Van Nostrand, New York, NY. 1863.
  13. ^ a b Rifkin, Herbert R. "Fresh Foods for the Army, 1775–1950". U.S. Army Quartermaster Foundation. Archived from the original on 2005-11-04. Retrieved 2005-10-09.
  14. ^ Thompson, W. Gilman. "Modern Dietetic Principles: Their Practical Application." Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. Vol. 162, Iss. 2
  15. ^ Nasset, E. M. "Professor John R. Murlin and the Beginnings of The Journal of Nutrition." The Journal of Nutrition. April 2003. 133
  16. ^ Final Report of the Mixed Committee of the League of Nations on the Relation of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture, and Economic Policy. Geneva, 1937. [1]
  17. ^ Harper, A.E. "Origin of Recommended Daily Allowances-An Historic Overview". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 41(1). 1985
  18. ^ [ Nutrition in the National Defense (1941–53) World War II and Post-War Era. Military-Nutrition.com.
  19. ^ Kuemmerlin, A. J., et al. "Three Decades of Endeavor-A Bibliography: 1944–1974." U.S. Army Medical Research and Nutrition Laboratory. Denver, CO. 1974
  20. ^ Delehanty, R. Historic California Posts, Camps and Stations-Letterman Army Medical Center. The California State Military Museum
  21. ^ Sandstead, H. H. "Origins of the Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense, and a Brief Note Concerning Its Demise". The Journal of Nutrition. 135:1257–1262, May 2005
  22. ^ Ten-State Nutrition Survey in the United States, 1968–70. Preliminary Report to the Congress. April 1971.
  23. ^ Hodges, R.E., et al. "Hematopoietic Studies in Vitamin A Deficiencies". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 31(5) 1978.
  24. ^ Milne, D.B. et al. "Effect of Ascorbic Acid on Copper and Cholesterol in adult cynomolgus monkeys fed a diet marginal in copper". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 34(11) 1981.
  25. ^ Anderson, J.W., Herman, R.H. "Effects of Carbohydrate restriction on glucose tolerance of normal men and reactive hypoglycemic patients". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 28(7) 1975.
  26. ^ Sauberlich, H.E., et al. "Thiamin requirement of the adult human". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 32(11) 1979.
  27. ^ Hagler, L. "Influence of dietary iron deficiency on hemoglobin, myoglobin, their respective reductases, and skeletal muscle mitochondiral respiration". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 34(10) 1981.
  28. ^ Alspach R, Gagne SD, Meyer A (1988). "New and Improved: T-Ration and MRE Development". Quartermaster Professional Bulletin. Archived from the original on 2010-03-14. Retrieved 2010-03-22.
  29. ^ Marriott, B.M. Not Eating Enough, Overcoming Underconsumption of Military Operational Rations. National Academy Press. Washington, DC. 1995. p. 100-105.
  30. ^ Military Nutrition Division Brochure. USARIEM. 2008
  31. ^ Modern Military Nutrition Research (1986–present), MilitaryNutrition.com [2]

External links

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