History of opium in China
The history of opium in China began with the use of opium for medicinal purposes during the 7th century. In the 17th century the practice of mixing opium with tobacco for smoking spread from Southeast Asia, creating a far greater demand.[1]
Imports of opium into China stood at 200 chests annually in 1729,[1] when the first anti-opium edict was promulgated.[2][3] By the time Chinese authorities reissued the prohibition in starker terms in 1799,[4] the figure had leaped; 4,500 chests were imported in the year 1800.[1] The decade of the 1830s witnessed a rapid rise in opium trade,[5] and by 1838, just before the First Opium War, it had climbed to 40,000 chests.[5] The rise continued on after the Treaty of Nanking (1842) that concluded the war. By 1858 annual imports had risen to 70,000 chests (4,480 long tons (4,550 t)), approximately equivalent to global production of opium for the decade surrounding the year 2000.[6]
By the late 19th century Chinese domestic opium production challenged and then surpassed imports. The 20th century opened with effective campaigns to suppress domestic farming, and in 1907 the British government signed a treaty to eliminate imports. The fall of the
Early history
Historical accounts suggest that opium first arrived in China during the
Initially used by medical practitioners to control bodily fluid and preserve qi or vital force, during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the drug also functioned as an aphrodisiac or chunyao (春药) as Xu Boling records in his mid-fifteenth century Yingjing Juan:
It is mainly used to treat masculinity, strengthen sperm, and regain vigour. It enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies. Frequent use helps to cure the chronic diarrhea that causes the loss of energy ... Its price equals that of gold.[11]
Ming rulers obtained opium via the
First listed as a taxable commodity in 1589[citation needed], opium remained legal until the end of Ming dynasty, 1637.[citation needed]
Growth of the opium trade
In the 16th century the Portuguese became aware of the lucrative medicinal and recreational trade of opium into China, and from their factories across Asia chose to supply the Canton System, to satisfy both the medicinal and the recreational use of the drug. By 1729 the Yongzheng Emperor had criminalised the new recreational smoking of opium in his empire.
Following the 1764
As the textile industry developed in Britain during the Industrial Revolution, the EIC drove Indian farmers out of cotton cultivation and shutting down Indian weaving operations.[15]: 7 The EIC encouraged farmers to cultivate opium instead, over time resulting in opium crops far in excess of the demand for medicinal use.[15]: 7
The EIC began auctions of opium in Calcutta to raise revenues. Since importation of opium into China was banned by Chinese law, the EIC established an indirect trading scheme relying partially on legal markets and also leveraging illicit ones. British merchants would first buy tea in Canton (
In 1797 the EIC further tightened its grip on the opium trade by enforcing direct trade between opium farmers and the British, and ending the role of Bengali purchasing agents. British exports of opium to China grew from an estimated 15 long tons (15,000 kg) in 1730 to 75 long tons (76,000 kg) in 1773 shipped in over two thousand chests.
In the same year the Emperor issued a further edict:
Opium has a harm. Opium is a poison, undermining our good customs and morality. Its use is prohibited by law. Now the commoner, Yang, dares to bring it into the Forbidden City. Indeed, he flouts the law! However, recently the purchasers, eaters, and consumers of opium have become numerous. Deceitful merchants buy and sell it to gain profit....If we confine our search for opium to the seaports, we fear the search will not be sufficiently thorough. We should also order the general commandant of the police and police- censors at the five gates to prohibit opium and to search for it at all gates. If they capture any violators, they should immediately punish them and should destroy the opium at once. As to Kwangtung (Guangdong) and Fukien (Fujian), the provinces from which opium comes, we order their viceroys, governors, and superintendents of the maritime customs to conduct a thorough search for opium, and cut off its supply.[20]
The decree had little effect. By Qianlong's time opium had become a mainstream recreation among scholars and officials, and by the 1830s the practice had become widespread in cities. The increase in popularity was a result of both social and economic shifts between the Ming and the Qing dynasties in which there was a boost in commercialization, consumerism, and urbanization of opium within the general public.[21] “Opium,” says one recent scholar, became “leisurely, urban, cultured and a status symbol” as an evidence of wealth, leisure, and culture.[22] The Qing government, far away in Beijing, was unable to halt opium smuggling in the southern provinces. A porous Chinese border and rampant local demand facilitated the trade. By 1838 there were millions of Chinese opium users — opium was the main painkiller in a pre-aspirin age. They were less reliable workers and the silver they sent abroad was hurting the economy.[23] More and more Chinese were smoking British opium as a recreational drug. But for many, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug.[24] Therefore, the Daoguang Emperor demanded action. Officials at the court who advocated legalizing and taxing the trade were defeated by those who advocated suppressing it. The Emperor sent the leader of the hard line faction, Special Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu, to Canton, where he quickly arrested Chinese opium dealers and summarily demanded that foreign firms turn over their stocks with no compensation. When they refused, Lin stopped trade altogether and placed the foreign residents under virtual siege in their factories, eventually forcing the merchants to surrender their opium. Lin destroyed the confiscated opium, a total of some 1,000 long tons (1,016 t), a process which took 23 days.[25]
First Opium War
China's crackdown on the use of opium clashed with Britain, which advocated for free trade as British merchants were the source of trading opium into China.
Anglophone capitalists linked their opium trade to the trade in coolie labor, describing them together as "poison and pigs."[30]: 5
Second Opium War
Despite the new ports available for trade under the Treaty of Nanking, by 1854 Britain's imports from China had reached nine times their exports to the country. At the same time British imperial finances came under further pressure from the expense of administering the burgeoning colonies of Hong Kong and Singapore in addition to India. Only the latter's opium could balance the deficit.[31] Along with various complaints about the treatment of British merchants in Chinese ports and the Qing government's refusal to accept further foreign ambassadors, the relatively minor "Arrow Incident" provided the pretext the British needed to expand their opium trade in China.
The Arrow was a merchant lorcha with an expired British registration that the Qing authorities seized for alleged salt smuggling. British authorities complained to the Governor-general of Liangguang, Ye Mingchen, that the seizure breached Article IX of the 1843 Treaty of the Bogue with regard to extraterritoriality. Matters quickly escalated and led to the Second Opium War, sometimes referred to as the "Arrow War" or the "Second Anglo-Chinese War", which broke out in 1856. A number of clashes followed until the war ended with the signature of the Treaty of Tientsin in 1860.[32] Although the new treaty did not expressly legalise opium, it opened a further five ports to trade and for the first time allowed foreign traders access to the vast hinterland of China beyond the coast.
Aftermath of the Opium Wars
The treaties with the British soon led to similar arrangements with the United States and France. These later became known as the
The opium trade faced intense enmity from the later British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone.[33] As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious" referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular.[34] Gladstone was fiercely against both of the Opium Wars and ardently opposed to the British trade in opium to China.[35] He lambasted it as "Palmerston's Opium War" and said that he felt "in dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China" in May 1840.[36] Gladstone criticized it as "a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace,".[37] His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects of opium brought upon his sister Helen.[38] Due to the First Opium war brought on by Palmerston, there was initial reluctance to join the government of Peel on part of Gladstone before 1841.[39]
Domestication and suppression in the last decades of the Qing dynasty
Once the turmoil caused by the mid-century
When the Qing government launched new opium suppression campaigns after 1901, the opposition no longer came from the British, whose sales had suffered greatly from domestic competition in any case, but from Chinese farmers who would be wiped out by the loss of their most profitable crop-derivative. Further opposition to the government moves came from wholesalers and retailers as well as from the millions of opium users, many of whom came from influential families.[41] The government persevered, creating further dissent amongst the people, and at the same time promoted cooperation with international anti-narcotic agencies. Nevertheless, despite the imposition of new blanket import duties under the 1902 Mackay Treaty, Indian opium remained exempt and taxable at 110 taels per chest with the treaty stating "there was no intention of interfering with China's right to tax native opium".[42]
The International Opium Commission observed that opium smoking was a fashionable, even refined pastime, especially among the young, yet many in society condemned the habit.[21] At this time the act of opium smoking was prevalent among students, soldiers, urban middle class, and wealthier peasants. One of the most influential groups was the sex industry that dominated the scene as the combination of both opium smoking and sex was the favoured pastime.[21] In 1907 Great Britain signed a treaty agreeing to gradually eliminate opium exports to China over the next decade while China agreed to eliminate domestic production over that period. Estimates of domestic production fell from 35,000 metric tons (34,000 long tons) in 1906 to 4,000 metric tons (3,900 long tons) in 1911.
Republican China
The combination of foreign and domestic efforts proved largely successful, but
In the northern provinces of Ningxia and Suiyuan in China, Chinese Muslim General Ma Fuxiang both prohibited and engaged in the opium trade. It was hoped that Ma Fuxiang would have improved the situation, since Chinese Muslims were well known for opposition to smoking opium.[44] Ma Fuxiang officially prohibited opium and made it illegal in Ningxia, but the Guominjun reversed his policy; by 1933, people from every level of society were abusing the drug, and Ningxia was left in destitution.[45] In 1923, an officer of the Bank of China from Baotou found out that Ma Fuxiang was assisting the drug trade in opium which helped finance his military expenses. He earned $2 million from taxing those sales in 1923. General Ma had been using the bank, a branch of the Government of China's exchequer, to arrange for silver currency to be transported to Baotou to use it to sponsor the trade.[46]
The Nationalist Government under General
During the
Under Mao
The Mao Zedong government is generally credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform.[50][51] Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.[52] The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, but spread to American soldiers during the Vietnam War, with 20 percent of soldiers regarding themselves as addicted during the peak of the epidemic in 1971. In 2003, China was estimated to have four million regular drug users and one million registered drug addicts.[53]
See also
Notes
- ^ Yingsu (罂粟) refers to the poppy, Papaver somniferum, and was used an alternative name for opium.
- ^
References
- ^ a b c Ebrey 2010, p. 236.
- ^ Greenberg 1969, pp. 108, 110 citing Edkins, Owen, Morse, International Relations.
- ^ Keswick & Weatherall 2008, p. 65.
- ^ Greenberg 1969, p. 29.
- ^ a b Greenberg 1969, p. 113.
- ^ "Global opium production", The Economist, 24 June 2010, retrieved 29 October 2012
- ^ OCLC 904437646.
- ^ S2CID 143635262.
- ^ Baumler 2001, p. 1-2: "Although many of the specific techniques they used were similar to those of the Nationalists, the Communist anti-opium campaigns were carried out in the context of the successful effort to use mass campaigns to bring all aspects of local life under control, and thus the Communists were considerably more successful than were the Nationalists. Opium and drug use would not be a problem again in China until the post-Mao era."
- ^ Li & Fang 2013, p. 190.
- ^ a b Zheng 2005, p. 11.
- ^ Brewster 1832, p. 275.
- ^ Lovell 2012, 176 of 11144.
- ^ a b Layton 1997, p. 28.
- ^ ISBN 9781736850084.
- ^ Parker & Wei 1888, p. 7.
- ^ Salucci, Lapo (2007). Depths of Debt: Debt, Trade and Choices Archived 28 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. University of Colorado.
- ISBN 978-0-521-52619-7.
- ^ Keswick & Weatherall 2008, p. 78.
- ^ Fu, Lo-shu (1966). A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western relations, Volume 1. p. 380.
- ^ S2CID 146582691.
- ^ Zheng (2005), p. 71-77.
- ^ P. E. Caquet, “Notions of Addiction in the Time of the First Opium War.” The Historical Journal 58, no. 4 (2015): 1009–29. doi:10.1017/S0018246X14000739.
- ^ THE OPIUM WARS IN CHINA
- ^ Hanes & Sanello 2002, p. 54.
- ^ Kiple 2007, p. 177: "England going to war for the principle of free trade -- in this case the right to sell opium -- and on behalf of "free tradres" determined to see China "opened" to the West.".
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- ^ Brook & Wakabayashi 2000, p. 7.
- ^ Ebrey & Walthall 2013, p. 378–82.
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- ^ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Bulletin on Narcotics: A Century of International Drug Control (Vienna, Austria: 2010) pp. 57–58[permanent dead link]
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- ^ Association for Asian Studies. Southeast Conference (1979). Annals, Volumes 1–5. The Conference. p. 51. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
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But although opium poppy provided a source of funding for Mao's opponents, and although ideologically it was an anathema to him, Mao too did not attempt to interfere with the poppy economy during his insurgency years. Large segments of the population were dependent upon the poppy economy, and Mao was in turn in need of the rural population's support, or at least its tolerance of his anti-Chiang Kai-shek insurgency. Over time, not only did Mao tolerate poppy cultivation, he actually came to tax it as well.
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- OCLC 55592114.
- ^ Alfred W. McCoy. "Opium History, 1858 to 1940". Archived from the original on 4 April 2007. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
- ^ Michael Mackey (29 April 2004). "Banned in China for sex, drugs, disaffection". Archived from the original on 10 June 2004. Retrieved 8 June 2007.
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Bibliography
- Baumler, Alan (2001). Modern China and Opium: A Reader. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472067688.
- Baumler, Alan (2007). The Chinese and Opium under the Republic: Worse Than Floods and Wild Beasts. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791469538.
- Brewster, David (1832). The Edinburgh encyclopaedia. Vol. 11. J. and E. Parker.
- ISBN 978-0-521-19620-8.
- ISBN 9781285528670.
- Brook, Timothy; Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2000). Opium Regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520222366.
- Keswick, Maggie; Weatherall, Clara (2008). The Thistle and the Jade: A Celebration of 175 Years of Jardine Matheson. Frances Lincoln. ISBN 9780711228306.
- Kiple, Kenneth F. (2007). A Movable Feast: Ten Millennia of Food Globalization. Wikidata Q111679724.
- Greenberg, Michael (1969). British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–42. Cambridge Studies in Economic History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hanes, W. Travis; ISBN 9781402201493.. popular history.
- Layton, Thomas N. (1997). The Voyage of the 'Frolic': New England Merchants and the Opium Trade. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804729093.
- Lowes, Peter D. (1966). The Genesis of International Narcotics Control. Librairie Droz. ISBN 978-2-600-04030-3.
- )
- Li, Xiaobing; Fang, Qiang (2013). Modern Chinese Legal Reform: New Perspectives. Asia in the new millennium. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813141206.
- Parker, Edward Harper; Wei, Yuan (1888). 圣武记 [Chinese Account of the Opium War]. The Pagoda Library. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh.
- Zheng, Yangwen (2005). The Social Life of Opium in China. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521846080.
Further reading
- Fairbank, John King. Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the treaty ports, 1842-1854 (Cambridge, Harvard U. P, 1953) online.
- McMahon, Keith (2002). The Fall of the God of Money : Opium Smoking in Nineteenth-Century China. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0742518027.
- Zhou, Yongming (1999). Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth Century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 9780847695980.