History of philosophy
The history of philosophy is the systematic study of the development of philosophical thought. It focuses on philosophy as rational inquiry based on argumentation, but some theorists also include myths, religious traditions, and proverbial lore.
.Arabic–Persian philosophy was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers. It had its peak period during the Islamic Golden Age. One of its topics was the relation between reason and revelation as two compatible ways of arriving at the truth. Avicenna developed a comprehensive philosophical system that synthesized Islamic faith and Greek philosophy. After the Islamic Golden Age, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned, partly due to Al-Ghazali's critique of philosophy. In the 17th century, Mulla Sadra developed a metaphysical system based on mysticism. Islamic modernism emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries as an attempt to reconcile traditional Islamic doctrines with modernity.
Central topics in
The history of philosophy is the field of inquiry that studies the historical development of
The history of philosophy has both a historical and a philosophical component. The historical component is concerned with how philosophical thought unfolded throughout the ages. It asks which philosophers held what views and how they were influenced by their social and cultural context. The philosophical component concerns whether the studied theories are true. It reflects on the arguments presented for the positions and assesses their validity and hidden assumptions. It makes the philosophical heritage accessible to a contemporary audience and evaluates its continued relevance today. Some historians of philosophy focus primarily on the historical component. They hold that the history of philosophy is part of the wider discipline known as intellectual history. Other theorists put more emphasis on the philosophical component. They tend to claim that the history of philosophy goes beyond intellectual history because its interest is not exclusively historical.[3]
Closely related to the history of philosophy is the historiography of philosophy. The historiography of philosophy examines what methods historians of philosophy use. It is also interested in how the dominant opinions in this field changed.[4] Different methods and approaches are used to study the history of philosophy. Some historians are mainly interested in philosophical theories and less in the fact that they were formulated in the past. They focus not on how the different positions evolved through time but on what claims they made and how they are still of interest. A different approach is to see the history of philosophy as an evolution. This approach is based on the assumption that there is a clear progress from one period to the next. In this process, earlier theories are refined or replaced by more advanced later theories. Other historians try to understand past philosophical theories as a product of their time. Their interest is in what positions past philosophers accepted and why they did so. The relevance of these positions for today is not their focus. They study, among other things, how the historical context and the philosopher's biography shaped their philosophical outlook.[5]
Another important
Western
Western philosophy covers the philosophy associated with the geographical region and cultural heritage of the Western world. It started in Ancient Greece and then shifted to the Roman Empire. It later spread to Western Europe and eventually to many other regions, including North America, Latin America, and Australia. It spans over 2.5 millennia, starting in the 6th century BCE and continuing until the present day.[8]
Ancient
Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE. This period ended by convention in 529 CE when the Platonic Academy and other philosophical schools in Athens were forced to shut down to stop their non-Christian doctrines.[9]
Presocratic
The first period of Ancient Greek philosophy is called
A key innovation of Presocratic philosophy was its attempt to provide rational explanations of the
Another influential theory was the
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
The philosophy of
Most of what is known of Socrates comes from the writings of his student Plato. Plato's works take the form of dialogues between other philosophers. This makes it difficult to reconstruct which of his doctrines are his own theories. He articulated the
Hellenistic and Roman
Ancient philosophy after Aristotle was marked by the emergence of wider philosophical movements, like Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Skepticism, the so-called Hellenistic schools of thought. Their inquiry focused on fields like ethics, physics, logic, and epistemology. This period began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and had its main impact until the end of the Roman Republic in 31 BCE.[21]
The Epicureans accepted and refined Democritus's idea that nature is composed of indivisible atoms. In the field of ethics, they saw pleasure as the highest good but rejected the idea that luxury and indulging in sensory pleasures lead to long-term happiness. Instead, they argued that a nuanced form of hedonism, a simple life characterized by tranquillity, was the best way to achieve this.[22]
The Stoics denied this hedonistic outlook; they saw desires and aversions as obstacles to their goal of living in tune with reason and virtue. In order to transcend or overcome these desires, they advocated self-mastery and an attitude of indifference.[23]
The skeptics explored the question of how
The school of Neoplatonism belongs to the later part of the ancient period. It started in the 3rd century CE and had its peak period until the 6th century CE. It inherited many ideas from Plato and Aristotle and transformed them in creative ways. Its core idea is that there is a transcendent and ineffable entity responsible for all existence. It is simply called "the One" or "the Good". The Intellect emerges from the One and contemplates it. This in turn gives rise to the Soul, which generates the material world. Influential Neoplatonists were Plotinus (204–270 CE) and his student Porphyry (234–305 CE).[25]
Medieval
The medieval period in Western philosophy started between 400 and 500 CE and ended between 1400 and 1500 CE.[26] One of its core differences from earlier philosophers is its focus on religious thought. The Christian Emperor Justinian forced schools of philosophy, such as Plato's Academy, to close. Intellectual activity was centralized in the Church and departing from doctrinal orthodoxy carried many risks. For these reasons, some consider it a "dark age" in comparison to what came before and after it.[27] Central topics in this period were the problem of universals, the nature of God, proofs of the existence of God, and the relation between reason and faith. The early medieval period was particularly shaped by Plato's philosophy while Aristotelian ideas became dominant in its later parts.[28]
Boethius (477–524 CE) had a keen interest in Greek philosophy. He translated many of Aristotle's works and tried to integrate and reconcile them with Christian doctrine. He discussed the problem of universals and formulated a theory to harmonize Plato's and Aristotle's views. He tried to achieve this by claiming that universals exist in the mind without matter in one way. But they also exist in material objects in another way. This idea was influential in the subsequent medieval debate on the problem of universals: it inspired so-called nominalists to claim that universals exist only in the mind. In relation to the Christian doctrine, Boethius explored the problem of the trinity, i.e. the question of how God can exist in three persons at the same time as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.[30]
Scholasticism
The later part of the medieval period was dominated by scholasticism. Scholasticism was strongly influenced by Aristotelian philosophy and followed a systematic and methodological approach.[31] Responsible for this intensified interest in Aristotle was the Arabic–Persian tradition. It preserved, translated, and interpreted many works of Aristotle that were lost in the Western world.[32]
Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274 CE) is often seen as the most influential medieval philosopher. Rooted in Aristotelianism, he developed a comprehensive system of scholastic philosophy. It covered areas like metaphysics, theology, ethics, and political theory. Many of his insights were summarized in his work Summa Theologiae. A key goal in most of his writings was to show how faith and reason work in harmony. He held that reason supports and reinforces the Christian tenets. But faith in God's revelation is still necessary since reason is unable to understand everything by itself. This concerns, for example, the claim that the world is eternal and the details of how God is related to His creation. In metaphysics, Thomas claimed that any entity is characterized by two aspects: essence and existence. Understanding a thing involves grasping its essence. This can happen without perceiving whether it exists. God constitutes a special case: His existence is unrestricted and is identical to his essence.[35] In ethics, Thomas held that moral principles are rooted in human nature. He thought that ethics is about doing what is good and that humans, as rational beings, have a natural inclination to pursue the Good.[36] In natural theology, his famous Five Ways are five arguments for the existence of God.[37]
Duns Scotus (1266–1308 CE) engaged with many of Thomas's ideas. In metaphysics, he rejected the claim that there is a real distinction between essence and existence. He held instead that this is only a formal distinction. This means that essence and existence are two different aspects of a thing. But they cannot be separated. He further claimed that there is a unique essence for each individual entity. This unique essence, called haecceity, is what makes an entity distinct from other entities of the same kind.[38]
Renaissance
The Renaissance period started in the middle of the 14th century and lasted until the beginning of the 17th century. This movement had its roots in Italy and gradually expanded to other regions of Western Europe. Some of its key aspects were a renewed interest in Ancient Greek philosophy and the emergence of
An important part of the resurgence of Ancient Greek philosophy concerned a revived enthusiasm for the teachings of Plato. This Renaissance Platonism was still conducted on the background of Christian theology and often tried to show how Plato's philosophy is compatible with and can be applied to Christian doctrines. For example, Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) argued that souls establish the connection between the realm of Platonic forms and the sensory realm. According to Plato, love can be understood as a ladder to reach higher forms of understanding. Ficino interpreted this in an intellectual sense as a way of relating to God through the love of knowledge.[41]
The revival of Ancient Greek philosophy was not restricted to Platonism. It encompassed other schools as well, such as Skepticism, Epicureanism, and Stoicism.[42] It was closely associated with the emergence of Renaissance humanism. Renaissance humanism is a human-centred worldview that highly values the academic disciplines studying human society and culture. This also included a shift in perspective by seeing humans as genuine individuals. Renaissance humanism was not primarily a philosophical movement. But it brought about many social and cultural changes that affected philosophical activity.[43] These changes were also accompanied by an increased interest in political philosophy. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) argued that a key responsibility of rulers is to ensure stability and security. They should govern effectively to benefit the state as a whole, even if harsh circumstances require the use of force and ruthless action. A different political outlook was presented by Thomas More (1478–1535). He envisioned an ideal society that is characterized by communal ownership, egalitarianism, and devotion to public service.[44]
The Renaissance also saw various developments in the philosophy of nature and
Early modern
Early modern philosophy encompasses the 17th and 18th centuries. The philosophers in this period are traditionally divided into
Empiricism
Empiricism in the early modern period was mainly associated with British philosophy. John Locke (1632–1704) is sometimes considered the father of empiricism. In his book An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he rejected the idea of innate knowledge and claimed that knowledge is empirical. He held that the mind is a blank slate that depends on sensory experience to acquire ideas. He distinguished between primary qualities, which belong to external objects independent of observers, and secondary qualities, which are the powers of objects to cause sensations in observers.[49] George Berkeley (1685–1753) was strongly influenced by Locke. He proposed a different and more radical form of empiricism. He developed a form of idealism by giving primacy to perceptions and ideas over material things. He argued that objects exist only to the extent that they are perceived by the mind. This implies that there is no reality outside the mind.[50]
David Hume (1711–1776) also accepted the basic empiricist tenet that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. He concluded from this idea that it is not possible to know that one thing caused another thing. His reason for this view was that the relation between cause and effect is not perceptible. Instead, he argued that the mind only perceives regular patterns between earlier and later phenomena. This leads it into a habit of expecting a phenomenon to occur because another one just occurred.[51] The empiricism promoted by Hume and others had an important influence on the scientific method. This concerned specifically the focus on observation, experimentation, and rigorous testing.[52]
Rationalism
Another dominant school of thought in this period was rationalism.
The rationalist philosophy of Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) gave even more emphasis to the role of deductive reasoning. He developed and used the so-called geometrical method to create his philosophical system. It starts with a small set of self-evident axioms. It proceeds by inferring a comprehensive philosophical system from them by using deductive reasoning. In contrast to Descartes, Spinoza arrived at a metaphysical monism.[54] Another influential rationalist was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). His principle of sufficient reason states that everything has a reason. He used this principle to develop his metaphysical system called monadology.[55]
Enlightenment and other late modern philosophy
The later half of the modern period saw the emergence of the cultural and intellectual movement known as
Political philosophy in this period was shaped by the book Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). Hobbes had a negative opinion of the natural state of humans and argued that it involves a war of everyone against everyone. The reason and purpose of civil society is to avoid this state. This happens through a social contract in which everyone cedes some of their rights to a central and immensely powerful authority to protect them from external dangers.[59] Rousseau also theorized political life on the model of a contract. His political outlook, however, was quite different because of his more positive assessment of human nature. This led him to argue in favor of democracy.[60]
19th century
The 19th century was a rich and diverse period in philosophy. In it, the term "philosophy" acquired the distinctive meaning used today as a discipline that is distinct from the
German idealism was among the most influential philosophical schools in this period. This tradition was inaugurated by Immanuel Kant, who argued that the conceptual activity of the subject is always partially constitutive of experience and knowledge. Subsequent German idealists objected to what they saw as theoretical problems with Kant's dualisms and the contradictory status of the thing-in-itself.[62] They sought a single unifying principle as the foundation of all reality. According to Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814), this principle is the activity of the subject or transcendental ego, which posits both itself and its opposite. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) rejected this focus on the ego. He sought a more abstract principle, referred to as the absolute or the world-soul, to act as the foundation of both consciousness and nature.[63]
The philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) is often described as the culmination of this tradition.[64] Hegel reconstructed a philosophical history according to which the measure of progress is the actualization of freedom. He did this not only with respect to political life, but also with respect to philosophy, the aim of which, he claimed, is a form of self-knowledge characterized by the identity of subject and object. His term for this is "the absolute" because such knowledge – which occurs in art, religion, and philosophy – is entirely self-conditioned.[65]
Further influential currents of thought in this period were historicism and neo-Kantianism. Historicists such as Johann Gottfried Herder emphasized the validity and unique nature of historical knowledge of individual events in contrast to universal knowledge of eternal truths. Neo-Kantianism was a diverse philosophical movement that revived and reinterpreted Kant's ideas.[66]
British idealism developed later in the 19th century and was strongly influenced by Hegel. For example,
According to Arthur Schopenhauer, the underlying principle of all reality is the will, which he saw as an irrational and blind force. Influenced by Indian philosophy, he formed a pessimistic outlook by coming to the conclusion that the expressions of the will ultimately lead to suffering.[69] He had a profound influence on Friedrich Nietzsche, who saw the will to power as a fundamental driving force in nature. He used this concept to criticize many religious and philosophical ideas: he saw them as disguised attempts to wield power rather than pure spiritual achievements.[70]
In the field of ethics, Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) developed his philosophy of utilitarianism. It states that whether an action is right depends on its utility, i.e., on the pleasure and pain it causes. The goal of actions is to maximize happiness or to produce "the greatest good for the greatest number". His student John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) became one of the foremost proponents of utilitarianism. He further refined the theory by claiming that what matters is not just the degree of pleasure and pain, but also their type or quality.[71]
Toward the end of the 19th century, the philosophy of pragmatism emerged in the United States. Pragmatists evaluate philosophical ideas by how useful and effective they are at guiding action. Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) is usually considered the founder of pragmatism. He held that the meaning of ideas and theories lies in their practical and observable consequences. According to this view, to say that an object is hard just means that, on a practical level, it is difficult to break, pierce, or scratch this object. He held that a true belief is a stable belief that works even if it has to be revised in the future. His pragmatist philosophy reached a wider popularity thanks to his life-long friend William James (1842–1910). James applied Peirce's ideas to psychology. He argued, for example, that the meaning of an idea consists in its experiential consequences. He rejected the claim that experiences are isolated events and talked instead of a stream of consciousness.[72]
20th century
Philosophy in the 20th century is usually divided into two main traditions:
Some schools of thought in 20th-century philosophy do not clearly fall into either analytic or continental philosophy. Pragmatism further evolved from its 19th-century roots thanks to scholars like
Analytic
Wittgenstein's later philosophy formed part of
Continental
In the tradition of continental philosophy, phenomenology was an important early movement. It tried to give an unprejudiced description of human experience from a subjective perspective. It used this description as a method to analyze and evaluate philosophical problems belonging to diverse fields like epistemology, ontology, philosophy of mind, and ethics. Its founder was Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). He emphasized the importance of suspending all antecedent beliefs to give a pure and unbiased description of experience as it unfolds.[87] His student Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) adopted this method into an approach he termed fundamental ontology. He explored how human pre-understanding of reality shapes human experience of and engagement with the world. He thought that pure description alone is not sufficient for phenomenology. Instead, it should be accompanied by interpretation to discover and avoid possible misunderstandings.[88] This line of thought was further developed by his student Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002). Gadamer held that human pre-understanding is dynamic and changes in the process of interpretation. He tried to explain this process as a fusion of horizons. The fusion of horizons involves an interplay between the person's current horizon and the horizon of the object of interpretation.[89]
Another influential current of thought in Heidegger's philosophy is his emphasis on how humans care about the world. He explored how this is related to phenomena like anxiety and authenticity. These ideas influenced Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), who developed the philosophy of existentialism. Existentialists hold that humans are fundamentally free and responsible for their own choices. They also claim that life lacks a predetermined purpose and choosing one's path without such a guiding purpose can lead to anxiety. The statement that the universe is meaningless was especially emphasized by absurdist intellectuals like Albert Camus (1913–1960).[90]
The second half of 20th-century continental philosophy was characterized by a critical attitude toward many traditional philosophical concepts and assumptions, such as the concepts of
Arabic–Persian
Arabic–Persian philosophy covers the philosophical tradition associated with the intellectual and cultural heritage of
The classical period of Arabic–Persian philosophy started in the early 9th century CE, roughly 200 years after the death of Muhammad. It spanned until the late 12th century CE and formed part of the Islamic Golden Age. The early classical period covered the philosophy before Avicenna and had a particular emphasis on translations and interpretations of Ancient Greek philosophy. The late classical period after Avicenna was shaped by the engagement with his comprehensive philosophical system.[94]
Arabic–Persian philosophy proved influential for Western philosophy. During the early medieval period, many of the Greek texts were not available in Western Europe. They became accessible in the later medieval period thanks to the preservation and transmission by the Arabic–Persian intellectual tradition.[95]
Kalam and early classical
The early Arabic intellectual tradition before the classical period was characterized by various theological discussions. They focused primarily on the question of the correct understanding of the
Early classical Arabic–Persian philosophy was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy. This concerned specifically the philosophy of Aristotle but includes also other philosophers, such as Plato. It happened both through translations and comprehensive commentaries. A key motivation of this process was to integrate and reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. Islamic philosophers emphasized the role of rational inquiry and examined how to harmonize reason and revelation.[97]
Al-Kindi (801–873) is often considered the first philosopher of this tradition in contrast to the more theological works of his predecessors.[98] He followed Aristotle in seeing metaphysics as the first philosophy and the highest science. From his theological outlook, it studies the essence and attributes of God. He drew on Plotinus's doctrine of the One to argue for the oneness and perfection of God. For him, God emanates the universe by "bringing being to be from non-being". In the field of psychology, he argued for a dualism that draws a strict distinction for humans concerning their immortal souls in contrast to their mortal bodies. Al-Kindi was a prolific author and published about 270 treatises in his lifetime.[99]
Al-Farabi (c. 872–950) was strongly influenced by Al-Kindi and accepted his emanationist theory of creation. Al-Farabi claimed that philosophy, rather than theology, is the best pathway to truth. His interest in logic earned him the title "the second master" after Aristotle. He came to the conclusion that logic is universal and constitutes the foundation of all language and thought. This contradicts certain passages in the Quran which assign this role to Arabic grammar. In his political philosophy, Al-Farabi accepted Plato's idea that a philosopher-king would be the best ruler. He discussed the virtues such a ruler should have, the tasks they should engage in, and the reasons why this ideal is not realized. Al-Farabi also provided an influential classification of the different sciences and fields of inquiry.[100]
Later classical
Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) was very critical of Avicenna's rational method and his adoption of Greek philosophy. He was skeptical about the capacity of reason to arrive at a true understanding of reality, God, and religion. He saw the philosophy of other Islamic philosophers as an illness. In his book The Incoherence of the Philosophers, he claimed that many philosophical teachings are filled with contradictions and incompatible with Islamic faith. However, he was not outright opposed to philosophy and assigned it a positive but limited place in Islam. He argued that philosophy should be accompanied by a form of mystical intuition to come to a deeper understanding. This intuition relies on direct personal experience and spiritual insight.[102]
Averroes (1126–1198) rejected the skeptical outlook of Al-Ghazali. He tried to show the harmony between the philosophical pursuit of knowledge and the spiritual dimensions of faith. His philosophy relied heavily on Aristotle's teachings. He often criticized Avicenna for departing too much from Aristotle. In the field of psychology, Averroes claimed that there is only one universal intellect shared by all humans. Averroes did not have much influence on subsequent Islamic scholarship but had a more significant impact on European philosophy.[103]
Post-classical
Averroes is often considered the last philosopher of the classical era. The traditional view is that the following post-classical period was marked by a decline on different levels. On the one hand, it is concerned the global influence of Islam. On the other hand, it affected scientific and philosophical inquiry in the Islamic world. Al-Ghazali's doubts about the power of reason and the role of philosophy played an important part in this development. The focus shifted instead to theology and religious doctrine.[104] However, some contemporary scholars have questioned the magnitude of this decline. According to their view, it is better understood as a shift of philosophical interest than a decline. This means that philosophy did not cease but was absorbed and lived on in theology.[105]
The movement of Islamic modernism emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to the cultural changes associated with modernity and the increasing influence of Western thought. Islamic modernists aimed to understand the role of traditional Islamic doctrines and practices in the emerging modern world. They sought to reinterpret and adapt Islamic teachings to show how the core tenets of Islam are compatible with the principle of modernity in the context of topics like democracy, human rights, science, and colonialism.[107]
Indian
Indian philosophy is the philosophical tradition that originated on the Indian subcontinent. It can be divided into the ancient period, which lasted until the end of the 2nd century CE, the classical and medieval period, which lasted until the end of the 18th century CE, and the modern period afterward.[108] Indian philosophy is characterized by a deep interest in the nature of ultimate reality. It relates this topic to the field of spirituality and asks questions about how to connect with the divine and reach a state of enlightenment. In this regard, Indian philosophers often acted as gurus in their role of guiding spiritual seekers.[109]
Indian philosophy is traditionally divided into orthodox and heterodox schools of thought. They are referred to as āstikas and nāstikas. Their exact definition is disputed. The orthodox schools usually accept the authority of the religious scriptures known as the Vedas. They tend to accept the existence of the self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman). There are six orthodox schools: Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. The heterodox schools are defined negatively as those that are not orthodox. The main ones are Buddhism and Jainism.[110]
Ancient
The ancient period in Indian philosophy started roughly 900 BCE and lasted until 200 CE. In this period, the Vedas were written. They are the religious texts that form the foundation of a lot of Indian philosophy. They cover many topics, including hymns and rituals. Of special interest to philosophy are the Upanishads. They are late Vedic texts that discuss philosophical topics. Some theorists see the Vedas as part of philosophy proper while others treat them as a form of proto-philosophy. This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic movements, like Buddhism and Jainism.[111]
The Upanishads introduce key concepts in Indian philosophy, like Atman and Brahman. Atman is the self. It is seen as the eternal soul that constitutes the essence of every conscious being. Brahman is ultimate reality. It is the highest principle governing the universe. The Upanishads explore how Atman and Brahman are related. A key idea is that gaining a proper understanding of their relation is a step on the spiritual path toward
The Vedas had a wide influence but not all Indian philosophy originated from them. For example, the non-Vedic movements of Buddhism and Jainism emerged in the 6th century BCE. They agreed with certain Vedic teachings about the cycle of rebirth and the importance of seeking liberation. But they rejected many of the rituals and the social order described in the Vedas. Buddhism was founded by
Jainism was founded by
Classical and medieval
The classical and medieval period in Indian philosophy started roughly 200 BCE and lasted until 1800 CE. Some theorists use the term "classical period" to refer to this whole duration. Others divide this age into two distinct periods: a classical period until 1300 CE and a medieval period afterward. The orthodox schools, known as the
Samkhya is the oldest of the darśanas. It is a dualistic philosophy claiming that reality is made of two principles:
Nyaya and Vaisheshika are further orthodox schools. In the field of epistemology, Nyaya claims that there are four
The schools of
Buddhist philosophy in this period was also vibrant and saw the development of the four main schools of Indian Buddhism. They are
Both the orthodox and the heterodox schools of Indian philosophy saw various developments in the later half of the classical period. Those developments often happened in the form of detailed commentaries focusing on their foundational sutras. The impact of the Vedanta school significantly grew during this period. It developed different schools, like the school of Advaita Vedanta under the influence of Adi Shankara (c.700–750). Shankara defended a radical monism. He claimed that Atman and Brahman are identical and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion.[121]
This idea was slightly modified by
Another important development in this period in the Nyaya school was the emergence of the Navya-Nyāya movement. It provided a more sophisticated framework of logic with a particular focus on linguistic analysis.[125]
Modern
The modern period in Indian philosophy started roughly 1800 CE. This period saw many social and cultural changes, specifically as a result of British rule and the introduction of English education. This had various effects on Indian philosophers. Previously, philosophy was done mostly in the language of Sanskrit but now many began to write in English. An example is the influential multi-volume book A History of Indian Philosophy by Surendranath Dasgupta (1887–1952). Philosophers in this period stood under the influence of both their own traditions and new ideas from Western philosophy.[126]
Various philosophers in this period tried to provide encompassing systems to unite and harmonize the diverse philosophical and religious schools of thought. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) emphasized the validity and universality of all religions. He tried to use the ideas of Advaita Vedanta to show how the different religious traditions are different paths that lead to the same spiritual truth. According to Advaita Vedanta, there is only one ultimate truth without any distinctions or divisions. It sees the diversity and multiplicity in the world as an illusion that hides the underlying divine oneness. According to Vivekananda, different religions are different ways of realizing this divine oneness.[127]
A similar project was pursued by
Chinese
Chinese philosophy covers the philosophical thought associated with the intellectual and cultural heritage of
Within traditional Chinese thought, philosophy was not clearly distinguished from religious thought and other types of inquiry.[131] It was primarily concerned with the topics of ethics and society. In comparison to other traditions, it gave less emphasis to metaphysics. Philosophical practice tended to focus on practical wisdom and philosophers often had the role of a sage or a thoughtful advisor.[132]
Pre-Qin
The first period in Chinese philosophy started in the 6th century BCE and lasted until the rise of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE.
Laozi (6th century BCE) is traditionally seen as the founder of Daoism. Like Confucius, he held that to live a good life is to live in harmony with the Dao. Unlike Confucius, his main focus was not only on society but included the relation between humans and nature. His concept of wu wei was particularly influential. The term is usually translated as "effortless action". It refers to acting in a natural flow that is in accordance with the Dao. Laozi saw this as an ideal state involving spontaneity and ease.[135]
The Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi (399–295 BCE) used parables and allegories to convey his ideas. To clarify the concept of wu wei in everyday life, he gave the example of a butcher. After many years of practice, the butcher arrived at a point where his knife automatically followed the optimal line when cutting an ox without any conscious effort. Zhuangzi is also known for his story of the butterfly dream, which questions the nature of subjective experiences. In this story, he wakes up from a dream in which he was a butterfly. Now he is not sure anymore whether he is a man who dreamt that he was a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming that it is a man.[136]
The school of Mohism was founded by Mozi (c. 470-391 BCE). Central to Mozi's philosophy is the concept of jian ai, which expresses a form of universal love or impartial caring. Based on this concept, he advocated an early form of consequentialism by arguing that political action should promote the welfare of the people.[137]
Qin to pre-Song dynasties
The following period started with the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE and lasted until the rise of the Song dynasty in 960 CE. This period stood under the influence of Xuanxue philosophy, legalist philosophy, and the spread of Buddhism. Xuanxue, also known as neo-Daoism, tried to synthesize Confucianism and Daoism. At the same time, it developed a metaphysical framework for these schools of thought. It assumed that the Dao is the root of ultimate reality. It questioned whether this root should be understood as being or non-being. According to the philosophers He Yan (c. 195–249 CE) and Wang Bi (226–249 CE), it is a formless non-being that acts as the source of all things and phenomena. This view was rejected by Pei Wei (267–300 CE), who argued that non-being is unable to give rise to being. Instead, he held that being gives rise to itself.[138]
In the field of ethics and politics, the school of legalism became particularly influential. It rejected the Mohist idea that politics aims at the promotion of general welfare. Instead, legalists argued that statecraft is about wielding
Buddhism arrived in India in the 1st century CE. In the early phase, Buddhist philosophers were primarily concerned with the translation of the original Sanskrit texts into Chinese. But later, new and distinctive forms of Chinese Buddhism developed. For example,
Song to Qing dynasties and modern
The next period started with the emergence of the Song dynasty in 960 CE. Some scholars take it to end with the opium wars in 1840 while others extend it all the way to the emergence of the Republic of China in 1912. In this period, neo-Confucianism was particularly influential. In contrast to earlier forms of Confucianism, it placed more emphasis on metaphysics. This came about as a reaction to similar developments in Daoism and Buddhism. It rejected their emphasis on non-being and emptiness. It focused on the concept of li instead as a positive foundation of metaphysics. Li is understood as the rational principle that is the ground of being and governs all entities. It also underlies human nature and is the source of virtues. Li is sometimes contrasted with qi as a material and vital force.[141]
The later part of the Qing dynasty and the following modern period were characterized by the encounter with Western philosophy. This included various philosophers, like Plato, Kant, and Mill as well as movements like pragmatism. But of special importance were Marx's ideas of class struggle,
The influence of traditional Chinese thought also remained strong in the modern period. This is reflected, for example, in the philosophy of Liang Shuming (1893-1988). Liang was influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Western philosophy. He is often seen as the founder of the school of thought known as new Confucianism. He advocated a balanced life attitude characterized by a harmony between humanity and nature as a way to true happiness. He criticized the modern European attitude for being overly concerned with exploiting nature for satisfying desires. He saw the Indian attitude with its focus on the divine and abstaining from desires as a mistake in the other direction.[143]
Others
There are various traditions which developed their own distinctive philosophical ideas. In some cases, these developments happened independently while in others, they were influenced by the main traditions.[144]
Japanese
Latin American
Philosophy in Latin America is often included in Western philosophy. However, in a more narrow sense, it is a distinct tradition that features its own characteristics despite the strong Western influence. Philosophical ideas concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans in it are found in its indigenous civilizations, like the
African
In the widest sense,
References
Notes
Citations
- ^
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- McAfee et al. 2023, Lead Section
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- Hurka 2021, 2. Metaethical Innovations, 3. Impersonal Consequentialism, 4. The Ideal
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- O'Regan 2016, p. 231
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- Grayling 2019, Ordinary Language Philosophy
- Parker-Ryan 2023, lead section
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- Grayling 2019, Ethics, Political Philosophy
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- Boundas 2007, pp. 299–302
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- ^
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- Gordon 1984, p. 15
- ^
- Bohman, Flynn & Celikates 2021, lead section
- Corradetti, lead section
- Raymond 1996, Critical theory
- ^
- Chambre et al. 2023, Recent trends
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- Dehsen 2013, pp. 48, 68
- Eberle 1994, p. 152
- Nord 2010, p. 107
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Arabic–Persian Philosophy
- Adamson 2016, p. 5
- ^
- Adamson & Taylor 2004, p. 1
- EB staff 2020
- Grayling 2019, Arabic–Persian Philosophy
- Reisman 2003, pp. ix–x
- Adamson 2016, pp. 5–6
- ^
- Ayduz & Dagli 2014, p. 356
- Hasse 2021, lead section, 1. Transmission
- Adamson 2016, pp. 161, 295, 421
- ^
- Adamson & Taylor 2004, p. 1
- Adamson 2023, pp. 54–55
- Adamson 2016, pp. 8–9
- Jackson 2014, p. 5
- Inglis 2005, p. 19
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Arabic–Persian Philosophy
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- ^
- Nasr & Leaman 2013, 11. Al-Kindi
- Nasr 2006, pp. 109–110
- ^
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Al-Farabi
- Druart 2021, lead section, 3. Logic, 7. Ethics and Politics
- ^
- Gutas 2016
- Grayling 2019, Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
- Baldassarri & Blank 2021, p. 82
- Belo 2007, p. 35
- ^
- Adamson 2016, pp. 140–146
- Marenbon 2012, pp. 114–115
- Dehsen 2013, p. 75
- Griffel 2020, lead section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî’s “Refutations” of falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam
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- Dehsen 2013, p. 18
- Adamson 2016, pp. 179–193
- Ben Ahmed & Pasnau 2021
- Kenny 2005, pp. 48–50
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- López-Farjeat 2021, p. 9
- Booth 2017, pp. 143–169, The Philosophers Strike Back: Averroes and Islamic Philosophy After al-Ghazali
- Grayling 2019, Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
- ^
- Griffel 2021, pp. 1–20, 565–566
- Adamson 2016, pp. 295–302
- ^
- Rizvi 2021, lead section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology
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- Moris 2013, pp. 154–155
- ^
- ^
- Gupta 2012, p. 8
- Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview
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- Smart 2008, p. 3
- Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy
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- Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy
- Smart 2008, pp. 13–15, 27–28
- Rambachan 2012, pp. 1–2
- ^
- Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The ancient period of Indian philosophy
- Pooley & Rothenbuhler 2016, p. 1468
- Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy
- ^
- Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The ancient period of Indian philosophy
- Tebbit 2013, p. 400
- Andrea & Overfield 2015, p. 71
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The ancient period of Indian philosophy
- Ruether 2004, p. 57
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- Perrett 2016, The ancient period of Indian philosophy
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- Hindson & Caner 2008, p. 289
- ^
- Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The classical period of Indian philosophy, The medieval period of Indian philosophy
- Glenney & Silva 2019, p. 77
- Adamson & Ganeri 2020, pp. 101–109
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The classical period of Indian philosophy
- Ruzsa 2023
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The classical period of Indian philosophy
- Vanamali 2015, p. 50
- Gannon 2020, p. 34
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The classical period of Indian philosophy
- Dasti, lead section, 1b. Inference
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The classical period of Indian philosophy
- Daniélou 1993, pp. 165–166
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The classical period of Indian philosophy
- Fang 2018, p. 23
- Wolfson 2014, p. 294
- ^
- Dalal 2021, lead section, 1. Life and Works
- Perrett 2016, The medieval period of Indian philosophy
- ^
- Ranganathan, 1. Rāmānuja’s Life and Works
- Sydnor 2012, p. 20
- ^ Ranganathan, lead section, 2c. Substantive Theses
- ^
- Ranganathan, 4. Rāmānuja's Soteriology
- Kulke & Rothermund 1998, p. 139
- Seshadri 1996, pp. 297
- Jha 2022, p. 217
- ^
- Perrett 2016, The medieval period of Indian philosophy
- Maharaj 2020, p. 122
- ^
- Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The modern period of Indian philosophy
- EB staff 2023
- ^
- Banhatti 1995, pp. 151–154
- Bilimoria 2018, pp. 529–531
- Rambachan 1994, pp. 91–92
- Menon, lead section
- ^
- Bilimoria 2018, pp. 529–531
- Baird 2017, pp. 244–245
- Prince 2017, p. 133
- ^
- Raghuramaraju 2016, p. 41
- Paranjape 2016, p. 320
- Bilimoria 2018, p. 240
- ^
- Smart 2008, pp. 70–71
- EB staff 2017
- Littlejohn 2023
- Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
- Zhang 2021, p. 751
- ^ Mou 2009, pp. 1–3
- ^
- Mou 2009, pp. 43–45
- EB staff 2017
- Smart 2008, p. 3
- ^
- Smart 2008, pp. 70–71
- EB staff 2017
- Littlejohn 2023
- ^
- EB staff 2017
- Smart 2008, pp. 71–76
- Littlejohn 2023, 1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects
- Boyd & Timpe 2021, pp. 64–66
- Liu 2017, p. 209
- Marshev 2021, pp. 100–101
- ^
- EB staff 2017
- Slingerland 2007, pp. 77–78
- Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
- Montero 2016, p. 22
- Chai 2020, pp. 42–43
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
- Littlejohn 2023, 1c. Mozi (c. 470-391 B.C.E.) and Mohism
- Defoort & Standaert 2013, p. 35
- ^
- Smart 2008, pp. 70–71
- EB staff 2017
- Littlejohn 2023, 2. Philosophy from the Qin (221 B.C.E.) to the Tang (618 C.E.)
- Wang, Bao & Guan 2020, pp. 6–8
- ^
- Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy
- Kim 2019, p. 161
- Littlejohn 2023, 2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods
- ^
- Littlejohn 2023, Early Buddhism in China
- Poceski 2014, pp. 165–166
- ^
- Smart 2008, pp. 70–71, 99–102
- EB staff 2017
- ^
- Littlejohn 2023, 5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy
- Mou 2009, pp. 473–480, 512–513
- Qi 2014, pp. 99–100
- Yu 2023, lead section, 5. The Traditional Trend in Modern Chinese Philosophy
- ^
- Littlejohn 2023, 5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy
- Yu 2023, lead section, 5. The Traditional Trend in Modern Chinese Philosophy
- Meynard & Major 2023, pp. 1–16
- ^ Smart 2008, pp. 1–12
- ^
- Smart 2008, pp. 126–127, 422–432
- Maraldo 2019, lead section, 3. Theory of Universals and the Logic of Place
- Kasulis 2016a, Logic in Japan
- Kurtz 2012, pp. 97–98
- Kasulis 2022, lead section, 3. Five Fountainheads of Japanese Philosophy, 4. Historical Periods of Philosophical Development and Interaction
- Kasulis 2013
- Kasulis 2016, Japanese philosophy
- ^
- Gracia & Vargas 2018, lead section, 1. History, 2. The Contemporary Period
- Stehn 2023
- Gracia & Millán-Zaibert 2006, Latin American Philosophy
- Iannone 2013, p. 12
- ^ a b
- Grayling 2019, African Philosophy
- Smart 2008, pp. 433–452
- Chimakonam 2023, lead section, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy
- Janz 2009, p. 74
- ^ Imbo 1998, p. 41
- ^
- Wiredu 2008, p. 172
- Coetzee & Roux 2004, p. 423
- ^
- Chimakonam 2014, pp. 4, 34
- Chimakonam 2023, lead section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy
- Bell & Fernback 2015, p. 44
- Coetzee & Roux 1998, pp. 38, 48, 88
- McEwan 2008, pp. 39–40
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