History of technology
History of technology |
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The history of technology is the history of the invention of tools and techniques by humans. Technology includes methods ranging from as simple as
New knowledge has enabled people to create new things, and conversely, many scientific endeavors are made possible by
Since much of technology is applied science, technical history is connected to the history of science. Since technology uses resources, technical history is tightly connected to economic history. From those resources, technology produces other resources, including technological artifacts used in everyday life. Technological change affects, and is affected by, a society's cultural traditions. It is a force for economic growth and a means to develop and project economic, political, military power and wealth.
Measuring technological progress
Many
For White, "the primary function of culture" is to "harness and control energy." White differentiates between five stages of
Lenski's approach focuses on information. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of
- hunter-gatherer,
- simple agricultural,
- advanced agricultural,
- industrial,
- special (such as fishing societies).
In economics, productivity is a measure of technological progress. Productivity increases when fewer inputs (classically labor and capital but some measures include energy and materials) are used in the production of a unit of output. Another indicator of technological progress is the development of new products and services, which is necessary to offset unemployment that would otherwise result as labor inputs are reduced. In developed countries productivity growth has been slowing since the late 1970s; however, productivity growth was higher in some economic sectors, such as manufacturing.[3] For example, employment in manufacturing in the United States declined from over 30% in the 1940s to just over 10% 70 years later. Similar changes occurred in other developed countries. This stage is referred to as post-industrial.
In the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like
By period and geography
The following is a summary of the history of technology by time period and geography:
- stone technology (Oldowan) 2.5 million years ago (scrapers; to butcher dead animals)
- Huts, 2 million years ago.
- Acheulean stone technology 1.6 million years ago (hand axe)
- Fire creation and manipulation, used since the 1.5 Million years ago
- Boats, 900,000 years ago.
- Cooking, 500,000 years ago.
- Javelins, 400,000 years ago.
- (Homo sapiens sapiens– modern human anatomy arises, around 100,000 years ago.)
- Glue, 200,000 years ago.
- Clothing possibly 170,000 years ago.
- 100,000 years ago.
- Harpoons, 90,000 years ago.
- Bow and arrows, 70,000–60,000 years ago.
- Sewing needles, 60,000 – 50,000 BC
- Flutes, 43,000 years ago.
- Fishing nets, 43,000 years ago.
- Ropes, 40,000 years ago.
- Microliths c. 35,000 – 23,000 years ago
- Ceramics c. 25,000 BC
- Fishing hooks, C. 23,000 years ago.
- Domestication of animals, c. 15,000 BC
- Sling (weapon) c. 9th millennium BC
- Brick used for construction in the Middle East c. 6000 BC
- Agriculture and plough c. 4000 BC
- Wheel c. 4000 BC
- Gnomon c. 4000 BC
- Writing systems c. 3500 BC
- Copper c. 3200 BC
- Bronze c. 2500 BC
- Salt c. 2500 BC
- Chariot c. 2000 BC
- Iron c. 1500 BC
- Sundial c. 800 BC
- Glass ca. 500 BC
- Catapult c. 400 BC
- Cast iron c. 400 BC
- Horseshoe c. 300 BC
- Stirrup first few centuries AD
Prehistory
million years ago ) |
Stone Age
During most of the Paleolithic – the bulk of the Stone Age – all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited tools and few permanent settlements. The first major technologies were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation. Stone tools and weapons, fire, and clothing were technological developments of major importance during this period.
Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of
To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced sharp edges which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers.[8] These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and breaking bones to get at the marrow); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an animal for its hide, and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.[9]
The earliest stone tools were irrelevant, being little more than a fractured rock. In the
The
The end of the last Ice Age about 10,000 years ago is taken as the end point of the
The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the Neolithic period. During this period, polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite, and greenstone, largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunneling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared. These stone axes were used alongside a continued use of stone tools such as a range of projectiles, knives, and scrapers, as well as tools, made organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.[11]
Stone Age cultures developed
Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools,[12] cave paintings, and other prehistoric art, such as the Venus of Willendorf. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study of mummies. Scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and especially their technology.
Ancient
Copper and Bronze Ages
Metallic copper occurs on the surface of weathered copper ore deposits and copper was used before copper smelting was known. Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery kilns allowed sufficiently high temperatures.[13] The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields arsenical bronze, which can be sufficiently work hardened to be suitable for making tools.[13]
This technological trend apparently began in the
Iron Age
Before iron smelting was developed the only iron was obtained from meteorites and is usually identified by having nickel content. Meteoric iron was rare and valuable, but was sometimes used to make tools and other implements, such as fish hooks.
The Iron Age involved the adoption of iron smelting technology. It generally replaced bronze and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger, lighter and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. The raw materials to make iron, such as ore and limestone, are far more abundant than copper and especially tin ores. Consequently, iron was produced in many areas.
It was not possible to mass manufacture steel or pure iron because of the high temperatures required. Furnaces could reach melting temperature but the crucibles and molds needed for melting and casting had not been developed. Steel could be produced by forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a somewhat controllable way, but steel produced by this method was not homogeneous.
In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this was not universally the case.
In Europe, large
Mesopotamia
Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, using the cuneiform script. Many records on clay tablets and stone inscriptions have survived. These civilizations were early adopters of bronze technologies which they used for tools, weapons and monumental statuary. By 1200 BC they could cast objects 5 m long in a single piece.
Several of the six classic
The
The Babylonian astronomical diaries spanned 800 years. They enabled meticulous astronomers to plot the motions of the planets and to predict eclipses.[26]
The earliest evidence of
Egypt
The Egyptians, known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools, invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp to aid construction processes. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the pyramids were built using three of what is called the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (147 meters) high.[29]
They also made writing medium similar to paper from papyrus, which Joshua Mark states is the foundation for modern paper. Papyrus is a plant (cyperus papyrus) which grew in plentiful amounts in the Egyptian Delta and throughout the Nile River Valley during ancient times. The papyrus was harvested by field workers and brought to processing centers where it was cut into thin strips. The strips were then laid out side by side and covered in plant resin. The second layer of strips was laid on perpendicularly, then both pressed together until the sheet was dry. The sheets were then joined to form a roll and later used for writing.[30]
Egyptian society made several significant advances during dynastic periods in many areas of technology. According to Hossam Elanzeery, they were the first civilization to use timekeeping devices such as sundials, shadow clocks, and obelisks and successfully leveraged their knowledge of astronomy to create a calendar model that society still uses today. They developed shipbuilding technology that saw them progress from papyrus reed vessels to cedar wood ships while also pioneering the use of rope trusses and stem-mounted rudders. The Egyptians also used their knowledge of anatomy to lay the foundation for many modern medical techniques and practiced the earliest known version of neuroscience. Elanzeery also states that they used and furthered mathematical science, as evidenced in the building of the pyramids.[31]
Ancient Egyptians also invented and pioneered many food technologies that have become the basis of modern food technology processes. Based on paintings and reliefs found in tombs, as well as archaeological artifacts, scholars like Paul T Nicholson believe that the Ancient Egyptians established systematic farming practices, engaged in cereal processing, brewed beer and baked bread, processed meat, practiced viticulture and created the basis for modern wine production, and created condiments to complement, preserve and mask the flavors of their food.[32]
Indus Valley
The
China
The Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major
Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period include
Hellenistic Mediterranean
The
Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for a number of
Ancient agriculture, as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods, were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of a number of previously unknown water-lifting devices, such as the vertical
In music, the water organ, invented by Ctesibius and subsequently improved, constituted the earliest instance of a keyboard instrument. In time-keeping, the introduction of the inflow clepsydra and its mechanization by the dial and pointer, the application of a feedback system and the escapement mechanism far superseded the earlier outflow clepsydra.
Innovations in mechanical technology included the newly devised right-angled
The
In other fields, ancient Greek innovations include the catapult and the gastraphetes crossbow in warfare, hollow bronze-casting in metallurgy, the dioptra for surveying, in infrastructure the lighthouse, central heating, a tunnel excavated from both ends by scientific calculations, and the ship trackway. In transport, great progress resulted from the invention of the winch and the odometer.
Further newly created techniques and items were
Roman Empire
The
The Roman Empire developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created
In Roman Egypt, the inventor
Inca, Maya, and Aztec
The engineering skills of the
Though the Maya civilization did not incorporate metallurgy or wheel technology in their architectural constructions, they developed complex writing and astronomical systems, and created beautiful sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. The Maya are also responsible for creating the first pressurized water system in Mesoamerica, located in the Maya site of Palenque.[42]
The main contribution of the
Medieval to early modern
One of the most significant developments of the medieval were economies in which water and wind power were more significant than animal and human muscle power.[43]: 38 Most water and wind power was used for milling grain. Water power was also used for blowing air in blast furnace, pulping rags for paper making and for felting wool. The Domesday Book recorded 5,624 water mills in Great Britain in 1086, being about one per thirty families.[43]
East Asia
Indian subcontinent
Islamic world
The Muslim caliphates united in trade large areas that had previously traded little, including the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, the Iberian Peninsula, and parts of the Indian subcontinent. The science and technology of previous empires in the region, including the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Persian, Hellenistic and Roman empires, were inherited by the Muslim world, where Arabic replaced Syriac, Persian and Greek as the lingua franca of the region. Significant advances were made in the region during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–16th centuries).
The
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made wide use of
The Muslim world adopted
The
Early
In the
Medieval Europe
While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backward in the evolution of Western technology, a generation of medievalists (like the American historian of science
Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development of plate armour, steel crossbows and cannon. The Middle Ages are perhaps best known for their architectural heritage: While the invention of the rib vault and pointed arch gave rise to the high rising Gothic style, the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the 'age of castles'.
Renaissance technology
Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clock makers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.[79]: 32
A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.[79] Among the water powered mechanical devices in use were ore stamping mills, forge hammers, blast bellows, and suction pumps.
|
Due to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC.[13][80]
The invention of the movable cast metal type printing press, whose pressing mechanism was adapted from an olive screw press, (c. 1441) lead to a tremendous increase in the number of books and the number of titles published. Movable ceramic type had been used in China for a few centuries and woodblock printing dated back even further.[81]
The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like
Age of Exploration
An improved sailing ship, the nau or
Pre-Industrial Revolution
The stocking frame, which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.[82]
Mines were becoming increasingly deep and were expensive to drain with horse powered bucket and chain pumps and wooden piston pumps. Some mines used as many as 500 horses. Horse-powered pumps were replaced by the Savery steam pump (1698) and the Newcomen steam engine (1712).[83]
Industrial Revolution (1760–1830s)
The revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of coal, produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of Britain. The British Industrial Revolution is characterized by developments in the areas of textile machinery, mining, metallurgy, transport and the invention of machine tools.
Before invention of machinery to spin yarn and weave cloth, spinning was done using the spinning wheel and weaving was done on a hand-and-foot-operated loom. It took from three to five spinners to supply one weaver.[84][85] The invention of the flying shuttle in 1733 doubled the output of a weaver, creating a shortage of spinners. The spinning frame for wool was invented in 1738. The spinning jenny, invented in 1764, was a machine that used multiple spinning wheels; however, it produced low quality thread. The water frame patented by Richard Arkwright in 1767, produced a better quality thread than the spinning jenny. The spinning mule, patented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton, produced a high quality thread.[84][85] The power loom was invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1787.[84]
In the mid-1750s, the steam engine was applied to the water power-constrained iron, copper and lead industries for powering blast bellows. These industries were located near the mines, some of which were using steam engines for mine pumping. Steam engines were too powerful for leather bellows, so cast iron blowing cylinders were developed in 1768. Steam powered blast furnaces achieved higher temperatures, allowing the use of more lime in iron blast furnace feed. (Lime rich slag was not free-flowing at the previously used temperatures.) With a sufficient lime ratio, sulfur from coal or coke fuel reacts with the slag so that the sulfur does not contaminate the iron. Coal and coke were cheaper and more abundant fuel. As a result, iron production rose significantly during the last decades of the 18th century.[13] Coal converted to coke fueled higher temperature blast furnaces and produced cast iron in much larger amounts than before, allowing the creation of a range of structures such as The Iron Bridge. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power.
The steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed.
Manufacture of ships' pulley
Until the
Second Industrial Revolution (1860s–1914)
The 19th century saw astonishing developments in transportation, construction, manufacturing and communication technologies originating in Europe. After a recession at the end of the 1830s and a general slowdown in major inventions, the Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid innovation and industrialization that began in the 1860s or around 1870 and lasted until World War I. It included rapid development of chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel technologies connected with highly structured technology research.
Telegraphy developed into a practical technology in the 19th century to help run the railways safely.[90] Along with the development of telegraphy was the patenting of the first telephone. March 1876 marks the date that Alexander Graham Bell officially patented his version of an "electric telegraph". Although Bell is noted with the creation of the telephone, it is still debated about who actually developed the first working model.[91]
Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, incandescent light bulbs became practical for general use in the late 1870s. Edison Electric Illuminating Company, a company founded by Thomas Edison with financial backing from Spencer Trask, built and managed the first electricity network. Electrification was rated the most important technical development of the 20th century as the foundational infrastructure for modern civilization.[92] This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers.[93]
Shoe production was mechanized during the mid 19th century.[94] Mass production of sewing machines and agricultural machinery such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century.[95] Bicycles were mass-produced beginning in the 1880s.[95]
Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U.S.[96] Ironclad warships were found in battle starting in the 1860s, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West.
Between 1825 and 1840, the technology of photography was introduced. For much of the rest of the century, many engineers and inventors tried to combine it and the much older technique of projection to create a complete illusion or a complete documentation of reality. Colour photography was usually included in these ambitions and the introduction of the phonograph in 1877 seemed to promise the addition of synchronized sound recordings. Between 1887 and 1894, the first successful short cinematographic presentations were established.
20th century
Energy and engine technology improvements included
Electrification spread rapidly in the 20th century. At the beginning of the century electric power was for the most part only available to wealthy people in a few major cities. By 2019, an estimated 87 percent of the world's population had access to electricity.[98]
The first "
Computers were connected by means of local area,
The commercial availability of the first portable cell phone in 1981 and the first pocket-sized phone in 1985,
The Human Genome Project sequenced and identified all three billion chemical units in human DNA with a goal of finding the genetic roots of disease and developing treatments. The project became feasible due to two technical advances made during the late 1970s: gene mapping by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers and DNA sequencing. Sequencing was invented by Frederick Sanger and, separately, by Dr. Walter Gilbert. Gilbert also conceived of the Human Genome Project on May 27, 1985, and first publicly advocated it in August 1985 at the first International Conference on Genes and Computers in August 1985.[107] The U.S. Federal Government sponsored Human Genome Project began October 1, 1990, and was declared complete in 2003.[107]
The massive data analysis resources necessary for running transatlantic research programs such as the Human Genome Project and the Large Electron–Positron Collider led to a necessity for distributed communications, causing Internet protocols to be more widely adopted by researchers and also creating a justification for Tim Berners-Lee to create the World Wide Web.
Vaccination spread rapidly to the developing world from the 1980s onward due to many successful humanitarian initiatives, greatly reducing childhood mortality in many poor countries with limited medical resources.
The US National Academy of Engineering, by expert vote, established the following ranking of the most important technological developments of the 20th century:[108]
- Electrification
- Automobile
- Airplane
- Water supply and Distribution
- Electronics
- Radio and television
- Mechanized agriculture
- Computers
- Telephone
- Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
- Highways
- Spacecraft
- Internet
- Imaging technology
- Household appliances
- Health technology
- Petroleum and Petrochemical technologies
- Fiber Optics
- Nuclear technology
- Materials science
21st century
In the early 21st century, research is ongoing into
Large Hadron Collider, the largest single machine ever built, was constructed between 1998 and 2008. The understanding of particle physics is expected to expand with better instruments including larger particle accelerators such as the LHC[109] and better neutrino detectors. Dark matter is sought via underground detectors and observatories like LIGO have started to detect gravitational waves.
Genetic engineering technology continues to improve, and the importance of epigenetics on development and inheritance has also become increasingly recognized.[110]
New
The
2004 saw the
By type
Biotechnology
Civil engineering
- Civil engineering
- Architecture and building construction
- Bridges, harbors, tunnels, dams
- Surveying, instruments and maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sewerage
Communication
- Communications
- Writing systems
- Telecommunications
- History of mobile phones
- History of animation
- History of broadcasting
- History of radar
- History of radio
- Printing
- Cinema
- Radio
- Television
- Internet
Computing
- Timeline of computing
- History of computing hardware before 1960
- History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
- History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries
- History of computer science
- History of operating systems
- History of software engineering
- History of programming languages
- History of artificial intelligence
- History of the graphical user interface
- History of the Internet
- History of the World Wide Web
- Timeline of free and open-source software
- History of video games
- Timeline of quantum computing and communication
Consumer technology
- Timeline of lighting technology
- History of clothing and textiles
- History of materials science
- Family and consumer science
- History of knitting
- History of lensmaking
- History of the chair
- History of the umbrella
- Manufacturing
Electrical engineering
Energy
Materials science
Measurement
Medicine
Military
- Military history#Technological evolution
- Category:Military history – articles on history of specific technologies
Nuclear
- Manhattan Project
- Atomic Age
- Nuclear testing
- Nuclear arms race
Science and technology
- List of years in science
- History of the telescope
- Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology
- Timeline of microscope technology
- Timeline of particle physics technology
- Timeline of low-temperature technology
- Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
- Timeline of spaceflight
Transport
- History of the automobile
- History of the bicycle
- Timeline of aviation
- Timeline of jet power
- Maritime timeline
- Timeline of motor and engine technology
- Timeline of motorized bicycle history
- Timeline of photography technology
- Timeline of railway history
- Timeline of rocket and missile technology
- Timeline of spaceflight
- History of communication
See also
- Related history
- Related disciplines
- Criticism of technology
- Intellectual history (field of study)
- History of science and technology (field of study)
- List of multiple discoveries
- Philosophy of technology
- Technical school
- Technology
- Technology dynamics (field of study)
- Related subjects
- High technology
- Deindustrialization
- Disruptive innovation
- List of technologies
- Simple machine
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Further reading
- Archibugi, Daniele, and Mario Planta. "Measuring technological change through patents and innovation surveys." Technovation 16.9 (1996): 451–519. online[dead link]
- Brush, S.G. (1988). The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution 1800–1950. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
- Bunch, Bryan and Hellemans, Alexander, (1993) The Timetables of Technology, New York, Simon & Schuster.
- Castro, J. Justin. "History of technology in nineteenth and twentieth century Latin America," History Compass 18#3 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12609
- Derry, Thomas Kingston and Williams, Trevor I., (1993) A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900 New York: Dover Publications.
- Greenwood, Jeremy (1997) The Third Industrial Revolution: Technology, Productivity and Income Inequality AEI Press.
- Kranzberg, Melvin and Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., eds. (1967) Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century New York: Oxford University Press.
- Landa, Manuel de, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines, 2001.
- McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14792-7.
- Olby, R.C. et al., eds. (1996). Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York, Routledge.
- Pacey, Arnold, (1974, 2ed 1994), The Maze of Ingenuity, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass,
- Popplow, Marcus, Technology, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2017, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf).
- Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A.R. and Williams, T.I. (eds.), (1954–59 and 1978) A History of Technology, 7 vols., Oxford, Clarendon Press. (Vols 6 and 7, 1978, ed. T. I. Williams)
- Wilson, George (1855). (1 ed.). Edinburgh: Sutherland and Knox.
External links
- Electropaedia on the History of Technology
- MIT 6.933J – The Structure of Engineering Revolutions. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a Thomas Kuhn-ian lens.
- Concept of Civilization Events. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of "civilizing events".
- Ancient and Medieval City Technology
- Society for the History of Technology
- Giants of Science (website of the Institute of National Remembrance)