History of the Chinese Communist Party
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The history of the Chinese Communist Party began with its establishment in July 1921. A study group led by
The CCP grew rapidly in the
In the years after 1949, the structure of the CCP remained Leninist, but the CCP's style of leadership changed several times.
Origins of the CCP (1905–1922)
Before the First Congress
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Following the 1919 May Fourth Movement, communism began to gain traction in China.[9] During 1919 and 1920, reading groups focused on the study of Marxism began to develop in China, with participants who had been involved in political movements of the 1910s like Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, as well as younger activists including Mao Zedong.[10]: 23
In the summer of 1919, the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) decided to assist people of the Far East.[11] In June 1920, Communist International (Comintern) agent Grigori Voitinsky was one of several sent to China, where he met Li Dazhao and other reformers. While in China, Voitinsky financed the founding of the Socialist Youth Corps.[12]: 32–35 Voitinsky found the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Comintern at Shanghai. On 5 July, he attended a meeting of Russian communists in China to promote the establishment of the CCP. He helped Chen found the Shanghai Revolutionary Bureau, also known as the Shanghai Communist Group. Stojanovic went to Guangzhou, Mamaev went to Wuhan, and Broway went to Beijing to help Chinese establish communist groups. Voitinsky provided these groups with promotional, conference and study abroad expenses.[11][13] In June 1921, Henk Sneevliet, a Dutch agent from the Communist International arrived in Shanghai, and arranged a meeting in a deserted girls' school in the French Concession to which thirteen of the fifty-seven declared Communists were invited. There, they proclaimed the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party."[1]
First Congress
The Party dates its establishment to June 1, 1921.[10]: 24 Its first formal meeting took place on July 23, 1921, when 12 representatives of local Chinese groups that had met over the course of the preceding two years gathered in Shanghai.[10]: 24
After several days of meeting, security concerns prompted the group to instead meet on a houseboat on lake in nearby Zhejiang.[10]: 24 The General Assembly adopted The First Program of the Communist Party of China, stating that "the Party is to be named the Communist Party of China" and specifying its objectives: "to overthrow the power of the capitalist class[,]" to "eradicate capitalism and private ownership of property[,]" and to "join the Comintern."[14] The key delegates in the congress were Li Dazhao, Chen Duxiu, Chen Gongbo, Tan Pingshan, Zhang Guotao, He Mengxiong, Lou Zhanglong and Deng Zhongxia.[citation needed]
Mao Zedong was present at the first congress as one of two delegates from a Hunan communist group. Other attendees included Dong Biwu, Li Hanjun, Li Da, Chen Tanqiu, Liu Renjing, Zhou Fohai, He Shuheng, Deng Enming. Two representatives from the Comintern were also present, one of them being Henk Sneevliet (also known by the single name 'Maring'[15]). Notably absent at this early point were future leaders Li Lisan and Qu Qiubai.[citation needed]
The period of the CCP's development between 1921 and 1934 is often referred to as the "Communist International era" because the Soviet Union was the key sponsor of Party activities.[16]: 35
First United Front (1922–1927)
In the early 1920s, the Bolsheviks and the Communist International's leaders believe that in China, the Kuomintang should be supported as it was in their view the country's most viable progressive force.[10]: 24 In August 1922, Sneevliet called a surprise special plenum of the central committee. During the meeting Sneevliet proposed that party members join the Kuomintang on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success. Li Dazhao, Cai Heshen and Gao Yuhan opposed the motion, whereupon Sneevliet invoked the authority of the Comintern and forced the CCP to accept his decision.[17]
Under the guidance of the Comintern, the CCP was reorganized along
Borodin and General Vasily Blyukher (also known as Galen in Chinese) worked with Chiang Kai-shek to found the Whampoa Military Academy. Soviet advisors were the academy's instructors.[10]: 26 The academy produced officers who later became leaders of both the Nationalist forces and the Chinese Red Army.[10]: 26
The CCP's reliance on the leadership of the Comintern provided a strong indication of the First United Front's fragility.[20]
The party's first major involvement in large-scale urban worker militancy was the May Thirtieth Movement.[21]: 61 The movement also resulted in major growth for the party, with its membership growing from 1,000 members in May 1925 to more than 57,000 by 1927.[22]: 56
The death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 created uncertainty regarding who would lead the party, and whether they would still work with the CCP. Despite the tensions, the Northern Expedition (1926–1927) led by the Kuomintang, with participation of the CCP made quick gains in overthrowing several powerful southern warlords.
Chinese Civil War (1927–1937)
In 1927, the KMT broke the United Front, committing the
By the early 1930s, the political center of the Communist movement had shifted to the rural base areas.[10]: 28 In 1931, the CCP consolidated a number these base areas into a state, the Chinese Soviet Republic (CSR).[18]: 1 The CSR reached its peak in 1933.[18]: 1 It governed a population which exceeded 3.4 million in an area of approximately 70,000 square kilometers.[18]: 1 The CSR had a central government as well as local and regional governments.[18]: 1 It operated institutions including an education system, court system, and education system.[18]: 1 The CSR also issued currency.[18]: 1
Long March
Although various counter-insurgency campaigns by the Kuomintang failed to defeat the CSR, the
In January 1935, the Red Army reached Zunyi.[10]: 29 At the Zunyi conference, party leadership addressed the events leading to the defeat of the CSR, the overall state of revolution in China, and how to proceed.[10]: 29 The course set by previous leaders including Bo Gu, international advisor Otto Braun, Li Lisan, and Qu Qiubai were the subject of criticism.[10]: 30 Although Zhou Enlai was among the criticized leaders, he remained respected and continued to hold a leadership position.[10]: 30 Mao Zedong was elected to the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau and became the movement's most influential leader.[10]: 30 Mao's elevation also reflected a theoretical shift and strategic shift to an increased focus on the rural peasantry as the primary revolutionary class.[10]: 30
After the Zunyi conference, the Long March resumed.[10]: 31 The Red Army settled in Shaanxi to expand an existing base into the Yan'an Soviet.[24]
The Western world first got a clear view of the main base of the Chinese Communist Party through Edgar Snow's Red Star Over China. Snow was also the first person to present Mao as the main leader – he was previously seen as just a guerilla leader and mostly as second to Zhu De (Chu Teh).[25]
During this period, young people dominated the CCP from its lowest to its highest levels.[26]: 145 According to Snow, the average age of Red Army rank-and-file soldiers was nineteen as of 1936.[26]: 145 The CCP's highest-ranking leaders had been students during the May Fourth period and were thus in their mid-thirties or forties after more than a decade of leadership.[26]: 145
World War II and the Second United Front (1937–1945)
During the
In eight years, the CCP's membership increased from 40,000 to 1,200,000 and the size of its military forces increased – from 30,000 to approximately one million in addition to more than one million members of militia support groups.[29]
China under Mao (1946–1976)
After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Although the CCP participated in the National Constituent Assembly, due to the attacks by the Nationalist government, the party was officially banned by the government in June 1946, with party leaders including Mao Zedong wanted.[30]
Despite initial gains by the KMT, they were eventually defeated and forced to
On 1 October 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the establishment of the PRC before a crowd at Tiananmen Square. At the time of the PRC's establishment, the CCP had 1 million members.[10]: 37 The CCP headed the Central People's Government.[31] From this time through the 1980s, top leaders of the CCP (like Mao Zedong, Lin Biao, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping) were largely the same military leaders prior to the PRC's founding.[32] As a result, informal personal ties between political and military leaders dominated civil-military relations.[32]
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin proposed a one-party state when Liu Shaoqi visited the Soviet Union in 1952.[33] In 1954, the PRC constitution was enacted, which changed the previous coalition government and established the CCP's sole ruling system.[34][35]
During the 1960s and 1970s, the CCP experienced a significant ideological separation from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[36] By that time, Mao had begun saying that the "continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, leading to the Cultural Revolution in which millions were persecuted and killed.[37]
Political and economic reforms (1976–2012)
Leadership of Deng Xiaoping
Following Mao's death in 1976, a power struggle between CCP chairman
In 1980, Deng called for a rejuvenation of the cadre system via promotion of "revolutionary, younger, more educated, and more technically specialized" cadre.[45]: 120 Subsequent regulations included establishing a cadre retirement system, age limits for leading cadres, and new recruitment and promotion rules.[45]: 120–121 The CCP also implemented the "third echelon" policy.[45]: 121 The policy sought to promote a total of 135,000 younger officials at all levels to prepare for the retirement for the impending retirement of older leaders in 1985.[45]: 121–122
Leadership of Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao
CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng as "paramount leader" in the 1990s, and continued most of his policies.[46] Since Jiang's administration, the highest positions in the party-state (General Secretary, Chair of the Central Military Commission, and President of China) have all been simultaneously held by a single leader.[16]: 37
In the 1990s, the CCP transformed from a veteran revolutionary leadership that was both leading militarily and politically, to a political elite increasingly regenerated according to institutionalized norms in the civil bureaucracy.[32] Leadership was largely selected based on rules and norms on promotion and retirement, educational background, and managerial and technical expertise.[32] There is a largely separate group of professionalized military officers, serving under top CCP leadership largely through formal relationships within institutional channels.[32]
In 1991, the party launched the nationwide Patriotic Education Campaign.[47]: 99 The major focus of the campaign was within education, and text books were revised to reduce narratives of class struggle and to emphasize the party's role in ending the century of humiliation.[47]: 99 As part of the campaign, Patriotic Education Bases were established, and schools ranging from primary to the college levels were required to take students to sites of significance to the Chinese Revolution.[47]: 99
As part of Jiang Zemin's legacy, the CCP ratified the
Under Xi Jinping (2012–present)
Hu resigned from his post as CCP general secretary and Chairman of the CMC at the 18th National Congress held in 2012, and was succeeded in both posts by Xi Jinping.[51][52] Since taking power, Xi has initiated a wide-reaching
Since 2014, the CCP has led efforts in Xinjiang that involve the detention of more than 1 million Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in internment camps, as well as other repressive measures. These repressive measures have been described as a genocide by some academics, the United States,[56][57] the Dutch parliament,[58] and the British House of Commons.[59] On the other hand, a greater number of countries signed a letter penned to the Human Rights Council supporting the policies as an effort to combat terrorism in the region.[60][61][62]
On 1 July 2021, the celebrations of the 100th anniversary of the CCP, one of the Two Centenaries, took place.[63]
See also
- History of China
- History of the Republic of China
- History of the People's Republic of China
- List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
- Politics of China
- History of communism
- History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
- History of the Communist Party of Vietnam
- Soviet and communist studies
- The Black Book of Communism
- Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
- Criticism of communist party rule
- Mass killings under communist regimes
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Works cited
- Kornberg, Judith; Faust, John (2005). China in World Politics: Policies, Processes, Prospects. University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-1588262486.
- Sullivan, Lawrence (2012). Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Communist Party. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810872257.
- ISBN 978-0674055445.
- Wong, Yiu-chung (2005). From Deng Xiaoping to Jiang Zemin: Two Decades of Political Reform in the People's Republic of China. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0761830740.