History of the Huns
The history of the Huns spans the time from before their first secure recorded appearance in Europe around 370 AD to after the disintegration of their empire around 469. The
Hunnic dominion over Barbarian Europe is traditionally held to have collapsed suddenly after the death of Attila the year after the invasion of Italy. The Huns themselves are usually thought to have disappeared after the death of his son Dengizich in 469. However, some scholars have argued that the Bulgars in particular show a high degree of continuity with the Huns. Hyun Jin Kim has argued that the three major Germanic tribes to emerge from the Hunnic empire, the Gepids, the Ostrogoths, and the Sciri, were all heavily Hunnicized, and may have had Hunnic rather than native rulers even after the end of Hunnic dominion in Europe.
It is possible that the Huns were directly or indirectly responsible for the
Potential history prior to 370
Some scholars believe that the Huns originated in the ancient people known as the Xiongnu and are thus related to other steppe peoples called Huns, however, there is no consensus on the issue.[1] There is a gap of about two hundred years between the conquest of the Xiongnu by the Xianbei and their disappearance from Chinese historical records and the appearance of the Huns in Greco-Roman sources.[2] Archaeology has discovered few links between the material culture of the Huns and Eastern Central Asia.[3] As of 2023, there is little genetic data from the Carpathian basin from the Hunnic period (5th century), and the population living there during the Hunnic period shows a variety of genetic signatures.[4] Maróti et al. 2022 showed that the genomes of 9 Hun-era individuals from the basin varied from European to Northeast Asian connections, with those individuals showing associations with Northeast Asia being most similar to groups found in Mongolia such as the Xiongnu and the Xianbei.[5][6]
The 2nd century AD geographer
A tribe called the Ουρουγούνδοι Ourougoúndoi (or Urugundi) who, according to
It is sometimes claimed that the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56 – c. 120 CE) had first mentioned the Huns in 91 CE. However, this is a misinterpretation that has arisen because the later historian Orosius (c. 375/385 – c. 420 CE) identified the contemporary Alans, Goths, and Huns with the Scythians whom Tacitus and Justin had already mentioned.[14]
Early history
First conquests
The Huns' sudden appearance in the written sources suggests that the Huns crossed the
The Romans became aware of the Huns when the latter's invasion of the
The Huns first invaded the land of the
Jordanes claimed that the Huns at this time were led by a king
After they subjugated the Alans, the Huns and their Alan auxiliaries started plundering the wealthy settlements of the Greuthungi, or eastern Goths, to the west of the Don.[32] Maenchen-Helfen suggests that it was as a result of their new alliance with these Alans that the Huns were able to threaten the Goths.[33] The Greuthungic king, Ermanaric, resisted for a while, but finally "he found release from his fears by taking his own life",[34] according to Ammianus Marcellinus.[35] Marcellinus's report refers either to Ermanaric's suicide[36] or to his ritual sacrifice.[35] His great-nephew, Vithimiris, succeeded him.[36] According to Ammianus, Vithimiris hired Huns to fight against the Alans who invaded the Greuthungi's land, but he was killed in a battle.[36][25] Kim suggests that Ammianus has muddled events: the Alans, fleeing the Huns, likely attacked the Goths, who then called upon the Huns for aid. The Huns, having dealt with the Alans, "probably then in Machiavellian fashion fell upon the weakened Greuthungi Goths and conquered them as well".[37]
After Vithimiris's death, most Greuthungi submitted themselves to the Huns:
Most Thervingi realized that they could not resist the Huns.
First encounters with Rome
During the Gothic War, the Goths appear to have allied with a group of Huns and Alans, who crossed the Danube and forced the Romans to allow the Goths to advance further into Thrace. The Huns are mentioned intermittently among their allies until 380, after which they apparently returned beyond the Danube.
Otto Maenchen-Helfen and E. A. Thompson argue that the Huns appear to have already been in possession of large parts of Pannonia (the
First large scale attack on Rome and Persia
In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attacks on the Romans. In the summer of that year, the Huns crossed over the
Sinor argues that the much larger scale of the attacks on Asia Minor and Persia indicates that the bulk of the Huns had remained on the Pontic steppes rather than moving into Europe at this time.[63] It seems clear that the Huns did not intend to conquer or settle the territories they attacked, but rather to plunder the provinces, taking, among other things, cattle. Priscus, writing much later, reports hearing from the Huns at Attila's camp that the raid was launched due to a famine on the steppes.[64] This may also have been the reason for the raids into Thrace.[57] Maenchen-Helfen suggests that Basich and Kursich, the Hun leaders responsible for the invasion of Persia, may have come to Rome in 404 or 407 as mercenaries:[65] Priscus records that they came to Rome to make an alliance.[66]
Hunnic attacks against Armenia would continue after this raid, with Armenian sources noting a Hunnic tribe known as the Xailandur as the perpetrators.[67]
Uldin
In 400, Gainas, rebellious former Roman magister militum fled into Uldin's territory with an army of Goths, and Uldin defeated and killed him, likely near Novae: he sent Gainas's head to Constantinople.[69] Kim suggests that Uldin was interested in cooperating with the Romans while he expanded his control over Germanic tribes in the West.[72] In 406, Hunnic pressure seems to have caused groups of Vandals, Suebi, and Alans to cross the Rhine into Gaul.[73] Uldin's Huns raided Thrace in 404–405, likely in winter.[74][75]
Also in 405, a group of Goths under
Also in 408, the Huns, under Uldin's command, crossed the Danube and captured the important fortress Castra Martis in Moesia.[78] The Roman commander in Thrace attempted to make peace with Uldin, but Uldin refused his offers and demanded an extremely high tribute.[79] However, many of Uldin's commanders subsequently defected to the Romans, bribed by the Romans.[68] It appears that most of his army was actually composed by Sciri and Germanic tribes, whom the Romans subsequently sold into slavery.[72] Uldin himself escaped back across the Danube, after which he is not mentioned again.[74] The Romans responded to Uldin's invasions by attempting to strengthen the fortifications at the border, increasing the defenses at Constantinople, and taking other measures to strengthen their defences.[72][80]
Hunnic mercenaries had also formed Stilicho's bodyguard:[74] Kim suggests they were a gift from Uldin.[72] The guard was either killed with Stilicho,[72] or is the same as an elite unit of 300 Huns who continued to fight for the Romans against Alaric even after Uldin's invasion.[74]
During this same time, probably between 405 and 408, the future Roman magister militum and opponent of Attila
410s
Sources on the Huns after Uldin are scarce.
Period of unified Hunnic rule
Ruga and Octar
The Huns again raided in 422, apparently under the command of a leader named Ruga.[81] They reached as far as the walls of Constantinople.[85] They appear to have forced the Eastern Empire to pay an annual tribute.[86] In 424, they are noted as fighting for the Romans in North Africa, indicating friendly relations with the Western Roman Empire.[87] In 425, magister militum Aetius marched into Italy with a large army of Huns to fight against forces of the Eastern Empire. The campaign ended with reconciliation, and the Huns received gold and returned to their lands.[88] In 427, however, the Romans broke their alliance with the Huns and attacked Pannonia, perhaps reconquerring part of it.[89]
It is unclear when Ruga and his brother
In 432, Ruga aided Aetius, who had fallen into disfavor, in reobtaining his old office of magister militum: Ruga either sent or threatened to send an army into Italy.[93] In 433, Aetius surrendered Pannonia Prima to Ruga, perhaps as a reward for aid that Ruga's Huns had given him in securing his position.[81] Either the previous year, in 432, or 434, Ruga sent an emissary to Constantinople announcing that he intended to attack some tribes whom he considered under his authority but who had fled into Roman territory;[94] however, he died after the beginning of this campaign and the Huns left Roman territory.[95]
Under Attila and Bleda
After Ruga's death, his nephews Attila and Bleda became the rulers of the Huns: Bleda appears to have ruled in the eastern portion of the empire, while Attila ruled the west.[91] Kim believes that Bleda was the supreme king of the two.[96] In 435, Bleda and Attila forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus, giving the Huns trade rights and increasing the annual tribute from the Romans.[97] The Romans also agreed to hand over Hunnic refugees and fugitive tribes.[97]
Ruga appears to have made a commitment to aid Aetius in Gaul before his death, and Attila and Bleda kept this commitment.
In 440, the Huns attacked the Romans during one of the annual trading fairs stipulated by the Treaty of Margus: the Huns justified this action by alleging that the bishop of Margus had crossed into Hunnic territory and plundered the Hunnic royal tombs and that the Romans themselves had breached the treaty by sheltering refugees from the Hunnic empire.[104] When the Romans failed to turn over either the bishop of Margus or the refugees by 441, the Huns sacked a number of towns and captured the city of Viminacium, razing it to the ground.[105] The bishop of Margus, terrified that he would be handed over to the Huns, made a deal to betray the city to the Huns, which was likewise razed.[106] The Huns also captured the fortress of Constantia on the Danube, as well as capturing and razing the cities of Singidunum and Sirmium.[106] After this the Huns agreed to a truce.[107] Maenchen-Helfen supposes that their army may have been hit by a disease, or that a rival tribe may have attacked Hunnic territory, necessitating a withdrawal.[108] Thompson dates a further large campaign against the Eastern Roman Empire to 443;[109] however Maenchen-Helfen, Kim, and Heather date it to around 447, after Attila had become sole ruler of the Huns.[110][96][111]
In 444, tensions rose between the Huns and the Western Empire, and the Romans made preparations for war;[112] however, the tensions appear to have resolved the following year through the diplomacy of Cassiodorus.[113] The terms seem to have involved the Romans handing over some territory to the Huns on the Sava River and may also have been when Attila was made magister militum to draw a salary.[114]
Unified rule under Attila
Bleda died some time between 442 and 447, with the most likely years being 444 or 445.[96] He appears to have been murdered by Attila.[96][100][115] Following Bleda's death, a tribe known as the Akatziri either rebelled against Attila[116] or had never been under Attila's rule.[117] Kim suggests that they rebelled specifically because of Bleda's death, as they were more likely to have been under Bleda's control than Attila's.[118] The rebellion was actively encouraged by the Romans, who sent gifts to the Akatziri; however, the Romans offended the supreme chief, Buridach, by giving him gifts second rather than first. He subsequently appealed to Attila for help against the other rebellious leaders.[119] Attila's forces then defeated the tribe after several battles: Buridach was allowed to rule his own tribe, but Attila placed his own son Ellac in command of the remaining Akatziri.[116][119]
Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Huns likely fought a war against the
Some time after Bleda's death, while the Huns were busy with internal affairs, Theodosius had ceased paying the stipulated tribute to the Huns.
In 450, Attila negotiated a new treaty with the Romans and agreed to withdraw from Roman lands; Heather believes that this was in order for him to plan an invasion of the Western Roman Empire.[129] According to Priscus, Attila contemplated an invasion of Persia at this time as well.[130] The treaty with Constantinople was abrogated shortly afterward by the new emperor Marcian, however, Attila was already occupied with his plans for the Western Empire and did not respond.[131]
Invasion of Gaul
In spring of 451, Attila invaded
The Hunnic army set out from the
Invasion of Italy
Upon his return to Pannonia, Attila ordered the launching of raids into Illyricum to encourage the Eastern Roman Empire to resume its tribute.
After Attila
Disintegration of Hunnic rule in the West
In 453, Attila was reportedly planning a major campaign against the Eastern Romans to force them to resume paying tribute.[155] However, he died unexpectedly, reportedly of a hemorrhage during his wedding to a new bride.[155] He may also have been planning an invasion of the Sasanian Empire; Martin Schottky claims that "Attila’s death in 453 C.E. saved the Sasanians from an armed encounter with the Huns while they were at the height of their military power".[156] Peter Heather, however, finds it unlikely that the Huns would have actually attacked Persia.[130]
According to Jordanes, Attila's death precipitated a power struggle between his sons – it is unknown how many there were in total, but ancient sources mention three by name: Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak.[157] The brothers began fighting one another, and this caused the Gepids under Ardaric to rebel. The Huns under Ellac then fought the Gepids and were defeated, resulting in Ellac's death.[158] According to Jordanes, this occurred at the Battle of Nedao in 454, however, Heather speculates that there may have been more than just a single battle.[158] Some tribes, such as the Sciri, fought on the Huns' side against the Gepids.[159] He also notes that, while 454 may have been a significant turning point, it by no means ended Hunnic rule over most of their subject peoples.[160] According to Heather, rather than an immediate collapse, the end of Hunnic rule was a slow process whereby the Huns gradually lost control over their subject peoples.[161]
The Huns continued to exist under Attila's sons Dengizich and Ernak.
Germanic tribes as successors to the Huns in the West
Kim argues that the war after the death of Attila was actually a rebellion of the western half of the Hunnic empire, led by Ardaric, against the eastern half, led by Ellac as leader of the Akatziri Huns.
The Sciri also emerged from Attila's empire with a potentially Hunnic King:
The Goths led by the
Therefore, despite the collapse of the Western Hunnic Empire, Kim argues that the most important Barbarian leaders in Europe after Attila were all themselves Huns or were closely associated with Attila's empire.[184] However, Warwick Ball argues that Kim relies on circular arguments and overstates the amount of influence the Huns had on the Germanic peoples.[185]
Potential continuation of Hunnic rule in the East
It is unclear what happened to Attila's youngest son Ernak.
Ancient sources appear to indicate that not all Hunnic peoples were incorporated into Ernak's Bulgar state.[195] Huns continue to appear as mercenaries and allies of both the Persians and Romans in the sixth century as well.[196] The Hunnic Altziagiri tribes continued to inhabit the Crimea near Cherson.[197] Jordanes mentions two groups descended from Dengizich's Huns living on Roman territory, the Fossatisii and Sacromontisi.[195] Kim, however, argues that we can distinguish just four large tribal groupings of Huns after the death of Dengizich; he argues that these were likely all ruled by members of Attila's dynasty. These groups often fought each other, however, and Kim argues that this allowed the Avars to conquer them and "recreat[e] the old Hunnic Empire in its entirety".[198] He argues that Avars themselves had Hunnic, but not European Hunnic, elements prior to their invasion.[199]
The tribe of
A final possible survival of the Huns are the
Historical impact
Peter Golden argues that the Huns, and the migrations that are associated with them, resulted in the transformation of the Western Eurasian steppe from the territory of primarily Iranian-speaking nomads to Turkic-speaking ones, as Turkic speakers moved west from modern Mongolia.[207]
Within Europe, the Huns are typically held responsible for the beginning of the
Other scholars have seen the Huns as less important in the end of Rome. J. Otto Maenchen-Helfen described the Hun's under Attila as "for a few years more than a nuisance to the Romans, though at no time a real danger".[214] Other scholars such as J. B. Bury have in fact argued that the Huns held the Germanic tribes back and thus gave the empire a few more years of life.[215]
Footnotes
- ^ Ball 2021, p. 174.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 37.
- ^ Savelyev & Jeong 2020.
- ^ Borbély et al. 2023, p. 18.
- ^ Saag & Staniuk 2022, p. 739.
- ^ Maróti et al. 2022.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 209.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 66.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 447.
- ^ a b c Thompson 1996, p. 25.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 449.
- ^ Ammianus 32.2
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 452–453.
- ^ Barnes 1977, p. 225.
- ^ de la Vaissière 2015, p. 177.
- ^ Heather 2010, p. 212.
- ^ Ball 2021, pp. 180–182.
- ^ Heather 2010, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Heather 2010, p. 113.
- ^ a b Golden 1992, p. 87.
- ^ Heather 2010, pp. 213–214.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, pp. 153–154.
- ^ a b Golden 1992, p. 89.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 26–27.
- ^ a b Heather 2010, p. 215.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 19.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 23.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 108.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 12, 21, 59, 364, 414.
- ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 181.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 22.
- ^ Ammianus 1939, p. 415.
- ^ a b c d Heather 2005, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d Thompson 1996, p. 27.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 74.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 180.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, p. 28.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 152.
- ^ a b James 2009, p. 51.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 146–167.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 26.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 27–30.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 38.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 38–41.
- ^ a b c Kim 2015, p. 76.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 43.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 30.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 45.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 48–51.
- ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 75.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b c d Sinor 1990, p. 184.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 31.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 32.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 182.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 193.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 55.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 183.
- ^ Golden 1992, p. 90.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, p. 33.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 59.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 59, 61-.
- ^ a b c Kim 2015, p. 77.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kim 2015, p. 78.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 32–33.
- ^ a b c d Sinor 1990, p. 185.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 63.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 60.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 65.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 34–35.
- ^ a b c d e Sinor 1990, p. 187.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 73.
- ^ a b c Sinor 1990, p. 186.
- ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 74.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 76.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 80.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 77.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 77–81.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 79.
- ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 188.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 85.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Sinor 1990, pp. 187–188.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 81.
- ^ a b c d Kim 2015, p. 93.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, pp. 83.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 92.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 72.
- ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 189.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 109–110.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 88.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, p. 89.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 90.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 116.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 91.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 117.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 307.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 104.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 107.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 97.
- ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 86.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 85-86.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, pp. 107.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 127–128.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 308.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 99.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 101.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 309.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 309–311.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 333–334.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, pp. 334–335.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 95.
- ^ a b c Heather 2005, p. 337.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 14).
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 142.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 336.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, p. 143.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 335.
- ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 96.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 335–336.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 144.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 98–99.
- ^ Thompson 1996, p. 149.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 338.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 338–339.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 132.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 339–340.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 340.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 137.
- ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 104.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 340–341.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 104–105.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 342.
- ^ Schottky 2004.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 353–354.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 354.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 355–356.
- ^ a b Heather 2005, p. 358.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 123.
- ^ a b c Kim 2015, p. 125.
- ^ a b Thompson 1996, p. 172.
- ^ a b c d Kim 2015, p. 126.
- ^ a b Golden 1992, p. 92.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 168.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 92.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 112.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 113.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 357.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 96–99.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 101–105.
- ^ Heather 2005, p. 356.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 11.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 356–357.
- ^ Kim 2013, pp. 106–112.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 119.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 127.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 358–359.
- ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 132.
- ^ Ball 2021, pp. 194–195.
- ^ Heather 2005, pp. 359–360.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 166.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 137.
- ^ Golden 1992, p. 103.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 132.
- ^ Sinor 1990, pp. 198–199.
- ^ a b c Kim 2015, p. 136.
- ^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 309.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 138.
- ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 199.
- ^ Kim 2013, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 141.
- ^ Kim 2013, p. 142.
- ^ Kim 2015, p. 139.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 200.
- ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 137.
- ^ Golden 1992, p. 91.
- ^ Kim 2015, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 201.
- ^ Golden 1992, p. 107.
- ^ Golden 1992, p. 108.
- ^ Golden 1992, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Sinor 1990, p. 177.
- ^ Heather 1995, pp. 16.
- ^ Heather 1995, pp. 19, 37–41.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 236–237.
- ^ Pohl 1999, p. 502.
- ^ Kim 2013, pp. 69–88.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Thompson 1996, pp. 235–236.
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