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Jews who migrated to ancient Persia mostly lived in their own communities. The Persian Jewish communities include the ancient (and until the mid-20th century still-extant) communities not only of Iran, but also the
Some of the communities were isolated from other Jewish communities, to the extent that their classification as "Persian Jews" is a matter of linguistic or geographical convenience rather than actual historical relationship with one another.
Jews trace their heritage in Iran to the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BCE and have retained their ethnic, linguistic, and religious identity.[6] However, a Library of Congress country study on Iran states that "Over the centuries the Jews of Iran became physically, culturally, and linguistically indistinguishable from the non-Jewish population. The overwhelming majority of Jews speak Persian as their mother language, and a tiny minority, Kurdish."[7] In 2012, Iran's official census reported 8,756 Jewish citizens, a decline from 25,000 in 2009.[8]
, when Assyria again invaded it, and the rest of the population was deported.
From this time, no trace exists of the Kingdom of Israel and its population are commonly referred as
Hamedan
) at the time of the Assyrians (Book of Tobit 6:12).
Samuel anointing David. Jewish messiah has to be anointed, and Cyrus is the only Gentile that has been referred to as Messiah in the Bible.
Persian Jewry under Cyrus the Great
Cyrus the Great allowing Hebrew pilgrims to return to and rebuild Jerusalem
Three times during the 6th century BCE, the
Jews) more than forty thousand are said to have availed themselves of the privilege, however this is not supported by modern scholarship.[10] Lester Grabbe argues that the immigration would probably only have amounted to a trickle over decades, with the archaeological record showing no evidence of large scale increases in population at any time during the Persian period.[10] Cyrus also allowed them to practice their religion freely (See Cyrus Cylinder
) unlike the previous Assyrian and Babylonian rulers.
In the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, to fulfill the word of the Lord spoken by Jeremiah, the Lord moved the heart of Cyrus king of Persia to make a proclamation throughout his realm and also to put it in writing: "This is what Cyrus king of Persia says: 'The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at Jerusalem in Judah. Any of his people among you may go up to Jerusalem in Judah and build the temple of the Lord, the God of Israel, the God who is in Jerusalem, and may their God be with them. And in any locality where survivors may now be living, the people are to provide them with silver and gold, with goods and livestock, and with freewill offerings for the temple of God in Jerusalem.'" —Book of Ezra, 1:1–4
The Second Temple period
Main articles:
Jerusalem during the Achaemenid period
The Bible states that Cyrus ordered the rebuilding of the Second Temple in the same place as the first but died before it was completed.
The historical nature of this has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle", taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000.[11]Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious", citing Grabbe and adding that J. Briend argued against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institute Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom."[12]
Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Cyrus, like earlier rules, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. He also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control."[13]Darius the Great, after the short-lived rule of Cambyses, came to power over the Persian Empire and ordered the completion of the Temple. This was undertaken with the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 515 BCE, more than twenty years after the Jews' return from exile.
Mordechai; and, as a result, Haman and his ten sons were hanged. The events of the Book of Esther are celebrated on the Jewish holiday Purim
.
The Parthian Period
Jewish sources contain no mention of the
Babylonians, like the rest of the Diaspora, were dependent upon the Land of Israel and Jerusalem
in particular, to which they were expected to travel in order to observe the festivals.
The
Achaemenids. There is even an account that indicates the conversion of a small number of Parthian vassal kings of Adiabene to Judaism. These instances and others show not only the tolerance of Parthian kings, as they are also a testament to the extent to which the Parthians saw themselves as heirs to the preceding empire of Cyrus the Great
. The Parthians were very protective of the Jewish minority as reflected in the old Jewish saying "When you see a Parthian charger chained to a tombstone in the Land of Israel, the hour of the Messiah will be near".
The
Bar Kochba revolt
no doubt added to the number of Jewish refugees in Babylon.
Possibly it was recognition of services thus rendered by the Jews of Babylonia, and by the House of David in particular, that induced the Parthian kings to elevate the princes of the Exile, who until then had been little more than mere tax collectors, to the dignity of real princes, called
Resh Galuta
. Thus, then, the numerous Jewish subjects were provided with a central authority which ensured an undisturbed development of their own internal affairs.
Pahlavi language, and restored the old monotheistic religion of Zoroastrianism which became the official state religion.[18] This resulted in the suppression of other religions.[19] A priestly Zoroastrian inscription from the time of King Bahram II (276–293 CE) contains a list of religions (including Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism etc.) that Sassanid rule claimed to have "smashed".[20]
Shapur I (Or Shvor Malka, which is the Aramaic form of the name) was friendly to the Jews. His friendship with Shmuel gained many advantages for the Jewish community. According to rabbinical sources, Shapur II's mother was Jewish, and this gave the Jewish community relative freedom of religion and many advantages. He was also friend of a Babylonianrabbi in the Talmud named Raba; Raba's friendship with Shapur II enabled him to secure a relaxation of the oppressive laws enacted against the Jews in the Persian Empire. In addition, Raba sometimes referred to his top student Abaye with the term Shvur Malka meaning "Shaput [the] King" because of his quick intellect.
Isfahan, were not exposed to such general persecutions as broke out against the more isolated Christians. Generally, this was a period of occasional persecutions for the Jews, followed by long periods of neglect in which Jewish learning thrived.[citation needed] In the 5th century, the Jews suffered from persecution during the reigns of Yazdegerd II and Peroz.[24]
Early Islamic period (634 to 1255)
At the time of
Islamic conquest of Persia, Jews were heavily under the pressure of the Sassanid rulers. Several Jewish religious figures were executed and the Jewish community was under pressure. Thus, many Jews welcomed the Arab armies with open arms. One of the Jews of Isfahan, "Abu Naeem", wrote in the "stories of the news of Isfahan" that Jews rushed to the gates of Isfahan to open the gates for the Arabs. He further wrote that many took musical instruments to make a feast. These Jews believed that the time of the Messiah is coming. Amnon Netzer believes that this story demonstrates that the Jews were the majority of the population of Isfahan at the time, since this act was likely to enrage the local Zoroastrians.[25]
After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Jews, along with Christians and Zoroastrians, were assigned the status of
Estakhri
reports that :
All of the land from
Tustar (Shushtar) was settled by Jews in such large numbers that the whole area was called Yahudistan (land of the Jews).[28]
Muslim clergy. After Arghun's death in 1291, Sa'd al-Daula was murdered and Persian Jews suffered a period of violent clergy-instigated persecutions from the Muslim populace. The contemporary Christian historian Bar Hebraeus wrote that of the violence committed against the Jews during that period "neither tongue can utter, nor the pen write down".[29]
Öljeitü, Ghazan Khan's successor, pressured some Jews to convert to Islam. The most famous such convert was Rashid al-Din Hamadani, a physician, historian and statesman, who adopted Islam in order to advance his career at Öljeitü's court. However, in 1318 he was executed on fake charges of poisoning Öljeitü; for several days, crowds carried his head around his native city of Tabriz, chanting "This is the head of the Jew who abused the name of God; may God's curse be upon him!" About 100 years later, Miran shah destroyed Rashid al-Din's tomb, and his remains were reburied at the Jewish cemetery. Rashid al-Din's case illustrates a pattern that differentiated the treatment of Jewish converts in Persia from their treatment in most other Muslim lands, where converts were welcomed and easily assimilated into the Muslim population. In Persia, however, Jewish converts were usually stigmatized on account of their Jewish ancestry for many generations.[29][30]
Nasser al-Din Shah
Qajar always referred to him as Jewish.
Safavid and Qajar dynasties (1502 to 1925)
Hamedan
Jews in 1918.
Further deterioration in the treatment of Persian Jews occurred during the reign of the
public baths with Muslims or even to go outside in rain or snow, ostensibly because some impurity could be washed from them upon a Muslim.[31]
The reign of Shah
forced to convert to Islam. However, as it became known that the converts continued to practice Judaism in secret and because the treasury suffered from the loss of jizya collected from the Jews, they were allowed to revert to Judaism in 1661. However, they were still required to wear a distinctive patch upon their clothing.[29]
Jews were often only permitted to pursue trades that were undesirable to the general Muslim population. They were expected to "undertake dirty work of every kind." Examples of such professions included dyeing (which contained strong unpleasant odors), scavenger work, cleaning excrement pits, singers, musicians, dancers and so on.[32] By 1905, many Jews of Isfahan were trading opium. This commerce, which was very profitable, involved trade with India and China. The head of Isfahan Jewry was known to have contacts with the house of David Sassoon.[33]
. Nader even employed many Jews in sensitive positions and he brought Jewish administrators as protectors of his treasures from India.
Nader also ordered Jewish holy books to be translated into Persian. Upon the completion of the translation, Nadir Shah presented the
Children of Israel together." However, death overtook him and did not allow him to do so.[34]
The Jews became prominent in trade in Mashhad, and established commercial relationships with the British, who favored dealing with them. After the assassination of Nader in 1747, Jews turned to the British traders and Sunni Turkomens for political support. At the time, Jews formed close ties with the British and provided banking support and intelligence for them.[35]
Zand dynasty
The
Jews in Ottoman Empire, with the weak condition of Jews in Iran. A Dutch traveller to Shiraz at the time of Karim Khan states: "Like most of the cities of the east, the Jews of Shiraz dwell in a separate quarter of their own, and they live, at least outwardly, in great poverty."[36]
The British officer William Francklin who visited Shiraz after Karim Khan's death wrote :
"The Jews of Shiraz have a quarter of the city allotted to themselves, for which they pay a considerable tax to the government, and are obliged to make frequent presents. These people are more odious to the Persians than any other faith, and every opportunity is taken to oppress and extort money from them, the very boys on the street are accustomed to beat and insult them, of which treatment they dare not complain"[36]
Qajar dynasty
See also:
Ebrahim Khan Kalantar, whom Naser al-Din Shah Qajar always referred to as Jewish.[37] However Aqa Muhammad Khan's successor, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar did not trust Haji Ebrahim and had him executed. Later, Hajj Ebrahim's daughter married the new prime minister and formed the influential Qavam family which remained influential in Iran for at least two centuries.[37] Despite the early cooperation between Jews and Qajars, the Jews eventually suffered under their leadership. The Qajars were also Shia Muslims and many Shia anti-Jewish laws were reinstated. Rabbi David Hillel who visited Persia in 1827 wrote of a forced conversion shortly before his trip. Stern who was a Jewish-Christian missionary wrote that all merchants in Vakil Bazaar are ethnic Jews who, in order to save themselves from death, rebuke the faith of their fathers constantly.[37]
Often, Iranian central government wished to help the Jews, but did not have enough influence in places where local rulers and Shia clergy were powerful. In one incident of this type in
Mujtahid's (Islamic Scholar) house who sought to send him to the government authorities. However people were so angry, that they broke into the house and killed him and burned his body. Sir William Taylour Thomson contacted Iranian authorities about this matter and a levy tax was imposed on all Muslim population of the city. This angered the population even more and all of them gathered to stone the Jew, the governor and Shah's agents. Jewish board of deputees sent gratitude to William Taylour Thomson for intervening on behalf of the Jews.[43]
The following street song which was common in Tehran in the 19th century demonstrates the negative view of average Persian Muslim towards the Persian Jews:
The Jew (Originally Juhud (Persian:جهود), a negative term meaning Jew) who is without honor, Is a nuisance from head to toe, He is a lie from toe to head, May scum cover his father's grave, He is an enemy of the religion of Islam, Don't call him a Jew, he is an infidel, His scarf, his gown and his shirt, His property, his children and his wife, Don't say they are bad, for they belong to you, Take them and screw them, they are lawful to you.
Barforush were forcibly converted in 1866; when they were allowed to revert to Judaism, thanks to an intervention by the French and British ambassadors, a mob killed 18 Jews of Barforush, burning 2 of them alive.[46][47] A representative of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, a Jewish humanitarian and educational organization, wrote from Tehran in 1894: "every time that a priest wishes to emerge from obscurity and win a reputation for piety, he preaches war against the Jews".[48]
In 1910, the Jews of Shiraz
were accused of ritually murdering a Muslim girl. Muslim dwellers of the city plundered the whole Jewish quarter, the first to start looting were the soldiers sent by the local governor to defend the Jews against the enraged mob. Twelve Jews, who tried to defend their property, were killed, and many others were injured.[49]
Regional differences
Iranian Jews actively took part in the Persian Constitutional Revolution. Seen here is a Jewish gathering celebrating the second anniversary of the Constitutional Revolution in Tehran.
Bushire they are prosperous and free from persecution."[50]
One European traveler in 1880 wrote: "Hatred [harboured by the gentiles of Kermanshah] toward the Jews is not as overdone as in central Persia".[51] In 1860, Rabbi Y. Fischel said about the Jews of Isfahan as beaten "from all sides by the gentiles."[52]
Another European traveler reported a degrading ritual to which Jews were subjected for public amusement:
At every public festival—even at the royal salaam [salute], before the King's face—the Jews are collected, and a number of them are flung into the
hauz or tank, that King and mob may be amused by seeing them crawl out half-drowned and covered with mud. The same kindly ceremony is witnessed whenever a provincial governor holds high festival: there are fireworks and Jews.[53]
In other times, the attacks on the Jews were related to their association with the foreigners. An event of this sort occurred in 1836, when Elyas – a Jewish banker for the British Residency in Bushehr – "was attacked for doing its business in the bazaar." Anti-Jewish acts were sometimes linked to resentment of European powers.[54]
In January 1924, the Jewish Telegraph Agency reported that a mob of Muslims had attacked the Jewish population of Tehran, and injured six Jews, but were prevented from killing anyone by the intervention of the police.[55]
Jewish community's international relations
In this time, Iranian Jews who were aware of the growing influence of
Hamedan sent an envoy, Nissim Bar Selomah, to meet Western Jewry. He went to England and met with Moses Montefiore, who provided "certificates" against the accusations of the Jews.[56]
From 1860, many attempts were made by the Persian Jewish community to secure assistance from European Jews against Muslims. These requests were full of descriptions of poverty and persecution faced by Jews in Persia. The following is one example of such requests:
"Allow us to present our supplications to you. You would not want your brethren, your own flesh and blood, to perish in frightful
Apostate Jews have the right to inherit their parents entire estate, the widow and orphans who did not abandon their faith must hand over their property to the apostate. A Muslim who kills a Jew will not go to a trial, even if there were witnesses to the crime, the Muslim will pay at most a fine for his deed. We are groaning under the burden of disgraceful taxes.[57]The newspaper of Iranian Jews between 1921 and 1925 called Ha-Haim.
Representatives of the Alliance Israélite Universelle recorded numerous instances of persecution and debasement of Persian Jews.[58] In many of these cases, envoys from foreign governments such as British, French and Ottoman intervened on behalf of the Jews to avoid more serious repercussions.[59] Three international Jewish organizations (Alliance Israélite Universelle, Anglo-Jewish Association and Board of Deputies of British Jews) and two key people (Adolphe Crémieux and Moses Montefiore) were instrumental in securing equal rights for the Iranian Jews and protecting Jews in antisemitic incidents.
With the growing influence of United States in international affairs, many American Jewish organizations such as American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) actively intervened on behalf of Persian Jews. During the great famine of Persia in 1917-1919, JDC representative Albert Lucas successfully convinced US government to donate 15,000 dollars (200,000 in 2015 USD) to Persian Jewry. The JDC of Philadelphia donated another 10,000 dollars in September 1918. Thus the casualty of famine amongst the Persian Jews was minimal in comparison to Persian gentiles.[60] Furthermore, when the Jewish neighborhood of Broujerd was attacked by Loures, JDC sent a large number of donations. US ambassador Caldwell was also instrumental in helping the Jews of Broujerd.[61]
In 1921, United States appointed Joseph Saul Kornfeld, a Jewish Rabbi, as its ambassador to Persia. This was the first time in the history of United States in which a Rabbi was appointed as an Ambassador. Kornfeld actively intervened on the behalf of Persian Jewry on many occasions. In one such event, Reza Shah ordered water to be cut off from the Jewish Ghetto of Tehran and Kornfeld successfully convinced Shah to resolve the matter.[62]
Pahlavi dynasty (1925 to 1979)
The Pahlavi dynasty implemented modernizing reforms, which greatly improved the life of Jews. The influence of the Shi'a clergy was weakened, and the restrictions on Jews and other religious minorities were abolished.[63]
Reza Shah (1925 to 1941)
Hebrew was incorporated into the curriculum of Jewish schools and Jewish newspapers were published. Jews were also allowed to hold government jobs.[64] In 1915, two Jewish brothers, Mordechai and Asher ben Avaraham, opened the first Jewish newspaper called "Shalom". These changes moved the balance of power in the Jewish community from elders and Rabbis to the youth. [citation needed] The establishment of Zionist Organization of Persia further accelerated this transfer of power to the young Jews.[citation needed] The Jews of Persia understood that "Zion" is the biblical name of Jerusalem and Zionism demonstrates that end of exile and the beginning of redemption. The Persian Zionist Aziz ben Yona Naim wrote in the early 1920s :"Zionism is nothing but a new name and new institution, for the Zionist idea has been present in Jewish thought for over two thousands years."[65]
In the wake of Zionist activity, many Persian Jews
Zionist Congress held in Europe. However this Zionist awakening led to bitter rivalry between two leaders of Jewish community: Loqman Nehourai and Shmuel Hayyim. Furthermore, even though Reza Shah was sympathetic to the Jews in the beginning, he became distrustful of Jewish movements with the growth of Zionism. Reza Shah sought to unite the different ethnic groups in Iran under the flag of nationalism. His main purpose was to fight communism, but he distrusted Zionism as well. Shah did not like the growing connection between European Jewry and Persian Jews. He further arrested Shmuel Hayyim and had him executed in 1931 under the charges of conspiracy to murder the Shah and change the form of government from constitutional monarchy
to a republic. Jewish schools were closed in the 1920s.
Imam Ali). The rumors stated that Hitler had a necklace depicting the picture of Imam Ali and was planning to reveal his true religion after defeating the deceitful British, the godless Russians and the Jews. A popular folk poem at the time said: "Imam is our supporter, Hossein is our master. If Germany doesn't arrive, dirt on our heads."[66]
In 1936, the head of Reichsbank and the financial mastermind of Nazi Germany travelled to Tehran and many important commercial agreements were signed between the two countries. In 1939, Nazi Germany sent over 7500 books with racial tones advocating for greater collaboration between Aryan Persians and Germans. In 1936, Iranians were called pure Aryans and were excluded from Nuremberg laws. Iranian railway was constructed by German engineers.[citation needed] The railway company was specifically ordered to avoid employing any person of Jewish origin in any of its subdivisions. Hitler personally promised that if he defeats Russia, he will return all of the Persian land taken by Russians during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.[citation needed] Many gentile anti-Semites were preparing for Johoudkoshan (Massacre of the Jews) and were warning Jews in the streets to leave Iran while they can.[citation needed]
Nazi Germany had nightly broadcasts in Persian and was calling many of the leading Iranian politicians who had anti-German tendencies
British troops to capture Iran in 1942, since the alternative was to be taken over by Germans.[67]
In order to fight the growing racial antisemitism among the Iranian population, many Jews joined the
communist revolution in Russia were Jewish and were looked upon favorably by Persian Jews.[68]
O King, let me tell you about the wickedness of Foroughi. That vile Jew will make you suffer greatly—he will write your coronation and dismissal speech, just as he wrote them for your father (Reza Shah).[69]
After the establishment of the state of Israel
A spike in anti-Jewish sentiment occurred after the establishment of the
Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. Although Mossadegh viewed the establishment of the state of Israel as a form of colonialism, he had a good relationship with the Jewish community. On his trip to United States, a Jewish journalist, Raby Moshfegh Hamadani, was accompanying him and giving advice.[citation needed
]
The most prominent anti-Israeli member of the government was Hossein Fatemi. Fatemi closed the office of the Jewish Agency on Israel's independence day in 1953. He also annulled an agreement permitting Israeli El Al airplanes to land in Iran. Fatemi, from time to time, published semi-official documents hinting that Iran no longer recognizes the state of Israel. However, Mossadegh himself continued commercial ties with the state of Israel and allowed the negotiations between the Bank Melli and Bank Leumi in Israel to continue.[70]
Shmuel Hayyim, leader of the Jewish community and Zionist movement in Persia, was arrested and executed by the order of Reza Shah.
The Six-Day War between Arabs and Israel in 1967 created a tense environment for Persian Jewry. During this time, the synagogues in Shiraz remained closed for more than ten weeks until Tisha B'Av for fear of attacks from Muslims masses. Jewish sources report that many gentiles tried to invade the Jewish ghetto and were dispersed by the police.[71]
Under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941–1979)
After the 1953 deposition of Mossadegh, the reign of shah
Iranian Academy of Sciences, 80 of the 4,000 university lecturers, and 600 of the 10,000 physicians nationwide.[72] An important factor in economic improvement of the Jews was close relations between the Shah and the state of Israel. Details of this connection and how the condition of Iranian Jews improved dramatically in a few short years still awaits rigorous exploration.[73]
Even though Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was very positive towards religious minorities, and especially Jews, in the beginnings of his reign as king, he displayed
antisemitic tendencies in the last decade of his rule. During an interview with Mike Wallace in 1976, Shah spoke of a highly organized and influential Jewish lobby in the United States that controls banking, politics and media and is pushing people around for the interests of Israel.[74]
Iranian Senate, describes in his memoirs that Shah became suspicious of the Jewish community in his final years, because most of the international criticism about lack of freedom in Iran and military style of government came from Jewish authors. Shah, according to Cohen, displayed a remarkable intolerance and annoyance by the Jewish community in his last annual visit in March 1978 with the community leaders. Cohen describes that Shah believed that there is an international Jewish conspiracy against him to end his reign as the king.[75]
During the Iranian revolution, many Iranian Jews joined the revolutionaries in order to lose their Jewish identity and be part of the utopia that the revolution promised.[76][77] In summer of 1978, 7,000 Jews protested against the Shah in Ashura protests. Other estimates puts the Jewish participants in the protests as high as 12,000. Almost all the religious leaders of the Jewish community such as Yedidia Shofet, Uriel Davidi, David Shofet, Yosef Hamadani Cohen, Rabbi Baalnes, and Rabbi Yadegaran participated in the protests. Other non religious leaders of the Persian Jewish community such as Aziz Daneshrad, Haroun Yashayaei, Yaghoub Barkhordar, Hoshang Melamed, Manuchehr Eliasi and Farangis Hasidim also participated in the protests.[78]
Leaders of the Jewish community such as Yosef Hamadani Cohen and Yedidia Shofet were instrumental in managing the collaborations between the Jews and the revolutionaries.[79]
The most important Jewish supporters of the revolution were in "Association of Jewish Iranian Intellectuals" (Jameye-roshanfekran-e-yahudi or AJII). In 1978 AJII's magazine, Tammuz, started writing in support of the revolution. Its writers were not limited to Persian Jews but also included prominent non-Jewish revolutionaries such as Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Zahra Rahnavard. AJII's charter was very close to the ideals of the revolution. It declared that AJII was at war with imperialism in its all forms, including Zionism. Furthermore, AJII's charter declared that the organization is at war with racism including antisemitism.[78]
Ayatollah Khomeini himself wrote a personal note thanking the hospital for its help after the revolution succeeded.[78]
In November 1978, leaders of the Jewish community met with
Ayatollah Taleqani and pledged their support for the revolution. In late 1978, leaders of the Jewish community met with Ayatollah Khomeini in Paris and declared their support for the revolution.[78]
On March 16, 1979,
Ibrahim Yazdi.[84] Yazdi promised him that no Jew will be executed in Iran because of their Zionist beliefs. Klarsfeld left Iran after a few days of investigation and made a documentary in which he iterated that the Iranian government has executed Elghanian because of his Jewishness.[85] On 18 May 1979, a group of Zionist leaders went to the Iranian embassy in Washington and met with Iranian delegates. In this meeting, the Iranian representative Ali Agoh stated that the Iranian government does not believe that Iranian Zionists are traitors.[86]
Even though the new revolutionary government promoted heated anti-Israeli sentiments among its followers, many commercial ties were still maintained even after the revolution. After the revolution, selling
US sanctions against Iran, the US government found Marc Rich guilty and sentenced him. However, Rich was later pardoned by Bill Clinton in his last day in office in 2001. Former Mossad heads Avner Azoulay and Shabtai Shavit personally wrote to Clinton to argue for his pardon.[89][90]
Furthermore, many other commercial ties still exist between Iran and Israel. Israel imports most of its pistachios from Iran, and this matter has angered California pistachio producers and the US government on many occasions.
Ofer Brothers Group was on the list of companies that broke Iranian sanctions.[95]
Iran's Ministry of Agriculture visited Israel secretly and stayed at the Tel Aviv Hilton Hotel. He expressed an interest in purchasing irrigation pipes, pesticides and fertilizers.[96][97][98]
Population and migration
Abrishami Synagogue in Palestine St. (Formerly known as Kakh st.) which was opened in 1965.
Driven by persecutions, thousands of Persian Jews emigrated to Palestine in the late 19th and early 20th century.[80] Many Jews who decided to stay in Iran moved to Tehran to be close to the Shah and enjoy his protection. In 1868, Jews were the most significant minority in Tehran, numbering 1,578 people.[99] By 1884, this figure had risen to 5,571.[99] By 1932, Tehran's Jewish population had risen to 6,568.[100]
From the beginning of the 20th century, the
literacy rate among the Jewish minority was significantly higher than the Muslim masses. In 1945, about 80 percent of the Jewish population were literate, whereas most Muslims could not read and write. In 1968, only 30 percent of Muslims were literate, whereas this figure was more than 80 percent for the Jews.[101]
Estimates of the Jewish population in Iran vary.
At the time of the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, there were approximately 140,000–150,000 Jews living in Iran, the historical center of Persian Jewry.[102]
David Littman puts the total figure of emigrants to Israel in 1948–1978 at 70,000.[80]
Prior to the
Aramaic-speaking Jewish community of about 4,000 people.[103]
About 95% have since migrated, with the immigration accelerating after the 1979 Islamic Revolution, when the population dropped from around 100,000 to about 40,000.[104]
During the Islamic Revolution, many of the Iranian Jews, especially wealthy Jewish leaders in Tehran and many Jewish villages surrounding Esfahan and Kerman, left the country. In late 1979, the people who left was estimated at 50,000–90,000.[citation needed]
Prior to the independence of Israel in 1948, Urmia was home to 700 Aramaic-speaking Jewish families. As of 2006, only two sisters remain.[citation needed]
In the mid- and late 1980s, it was estimated at 20,000–30,000, rising to around 35,000 in the mid-1990s.[105] According to the Iranian census, the Jewish population of Iran was 8,756 in 2012/2013,[106][107] and 9,826 in 2016.[108]
In 2018, a PBS program on the Jews in Iran claimed the population was 15,000.[109] The Jewish Virtual Library gives the total of Jews In Iran in 2019 as 8,300.[110]World Population Review numbers the Jews In Iran as 8,500 in 2021.[111][verification needed]
1980s to present-day
Opinion over the condition of Jews in Iran is divided. Jewish film producer
Jewish Sabbath. This has apparently been changed as of February 4, 2015.[112] Criticism of this policy was the downfall of the last remaining newspaper of the Iranian Jewish community, which was closed in 1991 after it criticized government control of Jewish schools. Instead of expelling Jews en masse like in Libya, Iraq, Egypt, and Yemen, the Iranians have adopted a policy of keeping Jews in Iran.[113]
The desire for survival may prompt Iranian Jews to overstate their anti-Israel positions. Their response to the questions regarding Israel have been outright denial of Israel or staying quiet. An example of the dilemma of Iranian Jews can be observed in this example :"We hear the ayatollah say that Israel was cooperating with the Shah and SAVAK, and we would be fools to say we support Israel. So we just keep quiet about it... Maybe it will work out. Anyway, what can we do? This is our home."
Times of Israel said these statements may be motivated by the remaining Iranian Jews trying to prevent being targeted themselves by the regime.[120]
In February 2023, Khamenei's representative to Iran's
^Esther's Children: A Portrait of Iranian Jews, Houman Sarshar, pages 35-38, Center for Iranian Jewish Oral History, 2005.
^Comprehensive history of the Jews of Iran: the outset of the diaspora, Ḥabīb Lavī, Hooshang Ebrami, pages 145-146, Mazda Publishers in association with the Cultural Foundation of Habib Levy, 1999.
^Yousef Cohen Reports & Memoirs (Persian: یوسف کهن - گزارش و خاطرات): Member of Iranian Parliament Representing, 2015, Ketab.com, page 303,
^Mehrzad Boroujerdi; Kourosh Rahimkhani. "Iran's Political Elite". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
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