History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel
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Jews and Judaism |
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The history of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel begins in the 2nd millennium BCE, when Israelites emerged as an outgrowth of southern
In 332 BCE the kingdom of
After this time, Jews became a minority in most regions, except
In 1517, the
Etymology
The term "Jews" originates from the Biblical Hebrew word Yehudi, and in its original meaning refers to the people of the
The Land of Israel, which is considered by Jews to be the Promised Land, was the place where Jewish identity was formed,[11][need quotation to verify] although this identity was formed gradually reaching much of its current form in the Exilic and post-Exilic period. By the Hellenistic period (after 332 BCE) the Jews had become a self-consciously separate community based in Jerusalem.
Ancient times
Early Israelites
The Israelites were a confederation of
Modern
The name Israel first appears in the
Extensive archaeological excavations have provided a picture of Israelite society during the early Iron Age period. The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village-like centres, but with more limited resources and a small population. During this period, Israelites lived primarily in small villages, the largest of which had populations of up to 300 or 400.
Israel and Judah
The archaeological record indicates that the culture that later evolved into the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged in the
Biblical narrative and moderate academic consensus states that a
By around 930 BCE, the Israelite population had separated into a southern Kingdom of Judah and a northern Kingdom of Israel. By the middle of the 9th century BCE, it is possible that an alliance between
Archaeological records indicate that the Kingdom of Israel was fairly prosperous. The late Iron Age saw an increase in urban development in Israel. Whereas previously the Israelites had lived mainly in small and unfortified settlements, the rise of the Kingdom of Israel saw the growth of cities and the construction of palaces, large royal enclosures, and fortifications with walls and gates. Israel initially had to invest significant resources into defense as it was subjected to regular
From the middle of the 8th century BCE Israel came into increasing conflict with the expanding
The
Judah prospered in the 7th century BCE, probably in a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian
According to Professor Meir Bar-Ilan, on the eve of the end of the First Temple period and the Persian conquest, the population of the land was approximately 350,000, of whom 150,000 lived in Judea and 200,000 in the Galilee and Transjordan.[54]
Exile under Babylon (586–538 BCE)
The Assyrian Empire was overthrown in 612 BCE by the
Babylonian Judah suffered a steep decline in both economy and population
The Babylonian conquest entailed not just the destruction of Jerusalem and its
The exile community in Babylon thus became the source of significant portions of the Hebrew Bible:
Second Temple period (538 BCE – 70 CE)
Persian rule (538–332 BCE)
In 538 BCE,
The Persians may have experimented initially with ruling Judah as a Davidic
Hellenistic and Hasmonean era (332–64 BCE)
In 332 BCE the Achaemenid Empire was defeated by
At first, relations between the Seleucids and the Jews were cordial, but later on as the relations between the hellenized Jews and the religious Jews deteriorated, the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (174–163) attempted to impose decrees banning certain Jewish religious rites and traditions.[clarification needed] Consequently, this sparked a national rebellion led by Judas Maccabeus. The Maccabean Revolt (174–135 BCE), whose victory is celebrated in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah, is told in the deuterocanonical Books of the Maccabees. A Jewish group called the Hasideans opposed both Seleucid Hellenism and the revolt, but eventually gave their support to the Maccabees. The Jews prevailed with the expulsion of the Seleucids and the establishment of an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean dynasty.
The Maccabean Revolt led to a twenty-five-year period of Jewish independence due to the steady collapse of the Seleucid Empire under attacks from the rising powers of the
The same power vacuum that enabled the Jewish state to be recognized by the
Early Roman period (64 BCE – 70 CE)
1st-century BCE – 2nd-century CE |
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64 BCE Antigonus the Hasmonean rules as King of Judea 37 Herod the Great made ruler of Judea 19 Herod's Temple completed4 BCE Tetrarchy of Judea formed6 CE Iudaea province formed20 Tiberias founded 66–73 First Jewish–Roman War
115–117 Bar-Kochba revolt, Ten Martyrs executed c. 200 Mishnah completed |
In
Throughout this period, the Jewish population continued to increase. The final two centuries before the destruction of the Second Temple saw a massive wave of urbanization; as the villages and towns reached capacity, many people migrated to urban areas. More than 30 towns and cities of different sizes were founded, rebuilt, or enlarged in a relatively short period. A third wall was erected around Jerusalem to encompass the thousands of people living outside the old walls. Though this was not limited to the Jewish population, with the new towns not being Jewish-only and some having no Jews, this points to a high level of growth among the Jewish population. The Jewish population of the land on the eve of the first major Jewish rebellion may have been as high as 2.2 million. The monumental architecture of this period indicates a high level of prosperity.[54]
In 66 CE, the Jews of Judea rose in revolt against Rome, sparking the
(72–73 CE) where the Jewish defenders killed themselves rather than fall into the hand of their Roman enemy.The revolt was crushed by the Roman emperors
It was during this period that the
Talmudic period (70 – 636 CE)
Late Roman period (70–324)
The 2nd century saw two further Jewish revolts against the Roman rule. The
The Roman suppression of the two major revolts in Judea led to the growth of the Jewish diaspora at the expense of Judea's population. Many Jews taken captive by the Romans were deported from Judea and sold into slavery. Josephus wrote that 97,000 Jews were sold into slavery following the First Jewish–Roman War and 30,000 were deported from Judea to Carthage. Many Jews also fled Judea to other areas in the Mediterranean region. Jews were again deported from Judea and sold into slavery after the Bar Kokhba revolt. Jews taken as slaves by the Romans and their children were eventually manumitted and joined established Jewish diaspora communities. Many other Jews migrated voluntarily from Judea in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt.[84][85][86]
In 131, Emperor
After suppressing the Bar Kochba revolt, the Romans permitted a hereditary rabbinical patriarch from the
During the
There was a notable rivalry between Palestinian and Babylonian academies. The former thought that leaving the land in peaceful times was tantamount to idolatry and many would not ordain Babylonian students for fear they would then return to their Babylonian homeland, while Babylonian scholars thought that Palestinian rabbis were descendants of the 'inferior stock' putatively returning with Ezra after the Babylonian exile.[94]
Byzantine period (324–638)
Byzantine period |
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351–352 Jewish revolt against Gallus ,Jewish communities and academies in disarray 358 Hillel II institutes Hebrew calendar 361–363 Rebuilding of Temple attempted under Julian 425 , dies 429 Jewish Patriarchate abolished by Theodosius II 438 Eudocia allows Jewish prayer on Temple Mount 450 Redaction of Jerusalem Talmud 614–617 Jews gain autonomy in Jerusalem under Persian rule 625 Liturgical poet Yanai flourishes |
Early in the 4th century, Roman Empire split and
In 351–352, there was another Jewish revolt against a corrupt Roman governor.[95] The Jewish population in Sepphoris rebelled under the leadership of Patricius against the rule of Constantius Gallus. The revolt was eventually subdued by Ursicinus.
According to tradition, in 359 CE Hillel II created the Hebrew calendar based on the lunar year. Until then, The entire Jewish community outside the land of Israel depended on the calendar sanctioned by the Sanhedrin; this was necessary for the proper observance of the Jewish holy days. However, danger threatened the participants in that sanction and the messengers who communicated their decisions to distant congregations. As the religious persecutions continued, Hillel determined to provide an authorized calendar for all time to come.
During his short reign, Emperor
Jews probably constituted the majority of the population of Palestine until some time after Constantine converted to Christianity in the 4th century.[100]
Jews lived in at least forty-three Jewish communities in Palestine: twelve towns on the coast, in the Negev, and east of the Jordan, and thirty-one villages in Galilee and in the Jordan valley. The persecuted Jews of Palestine revolted twice against their Christian rulers. In the 5th century, the
In 438, The Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site and the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews": "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come"!
In about 450, the Jerusalem Talmud was completed. [103][104]
According to Procopius, in 533 Byzantine general Belisarius took the treasures of the Jewish temple from Vandals who had taken them from Rome.
In 611,
Middle Ages (638–1517)
Under Islamic rule (638–1099)
Islamic period |
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638 Islamization of the Temple Mount 720 Jews permanently excluded from ascending Temple Mount c. 750 Palestinian Gaonate based inTiberias c. 850 Seat of the Gaonate transferred to Jerusalem 875 Mourners of Zion reside in Jerusalem 921 Controversy erupts regarding calendrical calculations of Aaron ben Meïr 960 Masorete Aaron ben Asher dies in Tiberias 1071 Gaonate exiled to Tyre
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In 638 CE, the Byzantine Empire lost the Levant to the Arab
In succeeding centuries a common view is that Christians and Muslims were equally divided. The conversion of the Christians to Islam -Gil maintaining they were a majority- is generally thought to have occurred on a large scale only after the Crusades, in the wake of Saladin's conquest, and as a result of disaffection for the Latins.[121][122]
Historical sources mention the settlement of Arab tribes and the establishment of new settlements in the 7th century, although few archaeological records have been preserved.
After the conquest, Jewish communities began to grow and flourish.
In around 875, Karaite leader
In the mid-8th-century, taking advantage of the warring Islamic factions in Palestine, a
From at least the middle of the ninth century, possibly earlier, to the 11th century, the
In 1039, part of the synagogue in Ramla was still in ruins, probably resulting from the earthquake of 1033.[137] Jews also returned to Rafah and documents from 1015 and 1080 attest to a significant community there.[138]
A large Jewish community existed in
Between the 7th and 11th centuries,
Under Crusader rule (1099–1291)
According to Gilbert, from 1099 to 1291 the Christian
In the crusading era, there were significant Jewish communities in several cities and Jews are known to have fought alongside Arabs against the Christian invaders.
Under Crusader rule, Jews were not allowed to hold land and involved themselves in commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most of them were artisans: glassblowers in Sidon, furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.[citation needed] At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ascalon, Caesarea, and Gaza. In line with trail of bloodshed the Crusaders left in Europe on their way to conquer the Holy Land, in Palestine, both Muslims and Jews were indiscriminately massacred or sold into slavery.[146] The Jewish community in Jerusalem was destroyed and would not be reconstituted for years, as most Jewish residents of the city were killed and the survivors were sold into slavery, some of whom were later redeemed by Jewish communities in Italy and Egypt. The redeemed slaves were subsequently brought to Egypt. Some Jewish prisoners of war were also deported by the Crusaders to Apulia in southern Italy. The Jewish communities of Jaffa and Ramleh were dispersed. However, Jewish communities in the Galilee were left unscathed.[147][148][149]
Jewish communities in Palestine were apparently left undisturbed during the
A large volume of
Decline and gradual revival with increased immigration (1211–1517)
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The Crusader rule over Palestine had taken its toll on the Jews. Relief came in 1187 when Ayyubid Sultan Saladin defeated the Crusaders in the Battle of Hattin, taking Jerusalem and most of Palestine. (A Crusader state centered around Acre survived in weakened form for another century.) In time, Saladin issued a proclamation inviting all Jews to return and settle in Jerusalem,[151] and according to Judah al-Harizi, they did: "From the day the Arabs took Jerusalem, the Israelites inhabited it."[152] al-Harizi compared Saladin's decree allowing Jews to re-establish themselves in Jerusalem to the one issued by the Persian Cyrus the Great over 1,600 years earlier.[153]
In 1211, the Jewish community in the country was strengthened by the arrival of a group headed by over 300 rabbis from France and England,[154] among them Rabbi Samson ben Abraham of Sens.[155] The motivation of European Jews to emigrate to the Holyland in the 13th-century possibly lay in persecution,[156] economic hardship, messianic expectations or the desire to fulfill the commandments specific to the land of Israel.[157] In 1217, Spanish pilgrim Judah al-Harizi found the sight of the non-Jewish structures on the Temple Mount profoundly disturbing: "What torment to see our holy courts converted into an alien temple!" he wrote.[158] During his visit, al-Harizi found a prosperous Jewish community living in the city.[147] From 1219 to 1220, most of Jerusalem was destroyed on the orders of Al-Mu'azzam Isa, who wanted to remove all Crusader fortifications in the Levant, and as a result, the Jewish community, along with the majority of the rest of the population, left the city.
In 1260, control passed to the Egyptian
The era of Mamluk rule saw the Jewish population shrink substantially due to oppression and economic stagnation. The Mamluks razed Palestine's coastal cities, which had traditionally been trading centers that energized the economy, as they had also served as entry points for the Crusaders and the Mamluks wished to prevent any further Christian conquests. Mamluk misrule resulted in severe social and economic decline, and as the economy shrank, so did tax revenues, leading the Mamluks to raise taxes, with non-Muslims being taxed especially heavily. They also stringently enforced the dhimmi laws and added new oppressive and humiliating rules on top of the traditional dhimmi laws. Palestine's population decreased by two-thirds as people left the country and the Jewish and Christian communities declined especially heavily. Muslims became an increasingly larger percentage of the shrinking population. Although the Jewish population declined greatly during Mamluk rule, this period also saw repeated waves of Jewish immigration from Europe, North Africa, and Syria. These immigration waves possibly saved the collapsing Jewish community of Palestine from disappearing altogether.[163]
In 1266 the Mamluk Sultan
The 1428 attempt by German Jews to acquire rooms and buildings on
In 1470, Isaac b. Meir Latif arrived from
Records cite at least 30 Jewish urban and rural communities in the country at the beginning of the 16th century.[180]
Modern history (1517–present)
Ottoman rule (1517–1917)
Mamluk and Ottoman rule |
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Key events |
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Key figures |
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Economy |
Philanthropy |
Communities |
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Synagogues |
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Palestine was conquered by Turkish Sultan
In 1534, Spanish refugee
The 16th-century nevertheless saw a resurgence of Jewish life in Palestine. Palestinian rabbis were instrumental in producing a universally accepted manual of Jewish law and some of the most beautiful liturgical poems. Much of this activity occurred at Safed, which had become a spiritual centre, a haven for mystics.
In around 1563,
In 1567, a Yemenite scholar and Rabbi, Zechariah Dhahiri, visited Safed and wrote of his experiences in a book entitled Sefer Ha-Musar. His vivid descriptions of the town Safed and of Rabbi Joseph Karo's yeshiva are of primary importance to historians, seeing that they are a first-hand account of these places, and the only extant account which describes the yeshiva of the great Sephardic Rabbi, Joseph Karo.[194]
In 1576, the Jewish community of Safed faced an expulsion order: 1,000 prosperous families were to be deported to Cyprus, "for the good of the said island", with another 500 the following year.[195] The order was later rescinded due to the realisation of the financial gains of Jewish rental income.[196] In 1586, the Jews of Istanbul agreed to build a fortified khan to provide a refuge for Safed's Jews against "night bandits and armed thieves."[195]
In 1569, the
In 1610, the Yochanan ben Zakai Synagogue in Jerusalem was completed.[197] It became the main synagogue of the Sephardic Jews, the place where their chief rabbi was invested. The adjacent study hall which had been added by 1625 later became the Synagogue of Elijah the Prophet.[197]
In the 1648–1654 Khmelnytsky Uprising in Ukraine over 100,000 Jews were massacred, leading to some migration to Israel. In 1660 (or 1662), the majority Jewish towns of Safed and Tiberias were destroyed by the Druze, following a power struggle in Galilee.[198][199][200][201][202][203][204]
The 17th century saw a steep decline in the Jewish population of Palestine due to the unstable security situation, natural catastrophes, and abandonment of urban areas, which turned Palestine into a remote and desolate part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman central government became feeble and corrupt, and the Jewish community was harassed by local rulers, janissaries, guilds, Bedouins, and bandits. The Jewish community was also caught between feuding local chieftains who extorted and oppressed the Jews. The Jewish communities of the Galilee heavily depended on the changing fortunes of a banking family close to the ruling pashas in Acre. As a result, the Jewish population significantly shrank.[205]
In 1700, about 500 to 1,000 European Jewish followers of Judah HeHasid immigrated to Palestine and settled in Jerusalem. They were forced to give the Turkish authorities financial guarantees in the name of Jerusalem's Jewish community in exchange for permission to enter the Ottoman Empire. At the time approximately 200 Ashkenazi Jews and 1,000 Sephardi Jews lived in the city, most of them reliant on charity from the diaspora. The sudden influx of so many Ashkenazi immigrants produced a crisis. The local community was unable to help so many people and suspected some of the new arrivals of being Sabbateans, whom they viewed with hostility. The newcomers built the Hurva Synagogue and incurred debts doing so. In 1720, due to failure to repay the debts, Arab creditors broke into the synagogue, set it on fire, and took over the area. The Ottoman authorities held both HeHasid's group and the pre-existing Ashkenazi community collectively responsible and expelled all Ashkenazi Jews from Jerusalem.[206][207]
In 1714, Dutch researcher
In the early 19th century, the disciples of the
During the siege of Acre in 1799, Napoleon issued a proclamation to the Jews of Asia and Africa to help him conquer Jerusalem. The siege was lost to the British, however, and the plan was never carried out.
In 1821 the brothers of murdered Jewish adviser and finance minister to the rulers of the Galilee, Haim Farkhi, formed an army with Ottoman permission, marched south and conquered the Galilee. They were held up at Akko which they besieged for 14 months after which they gave up and retreated to Damascus.
During the
Throughout the 19th century up to the 1880s, Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe as well as groups of Sephardi Jews from Turkey, Bulgaria, and North Africa immigrated to Palestine.[211] Jerusalem's Jewish population grew particularly fast as a result of Jewish migration from within the Land of Israel and abroad. In the aftermath of the Galilee earthquake of 1837, some Jewish residents of Safed and Tiberias, which had been hit hard by the earthquake, further expanded the population. As a result, the Jewish Quarter became overcrowded and squalid and Jews who moved to other parts of the city paid exorbitant rents to non-Jewish landlords. The Rothschild family attempted to ease the overcrowding by financing a set of apartments for Jews called the Batei Hamahse in the 1850s, but this proved inadequate. With the expansion of Jerusalem beyond the traditional Old City walls, Jews began settling outside of the Old City. In 1855, the Kerem Avraham district, which contained a vineyard and soap factory, was founded by James Finn, the British Consul in Jerusalem, to provide the Jews of Jerusalem employment so they would not have to subsist on donations from abroad.[212] The first Jewish neighborhood built outside of the Old City walls was Mishkenot Sha'ananim, established in 1860. Mahane Israel, the second Jewish neighborhood built outside the Old City walls, was founded in 1867 as a settlement for Maghrebi Jews. The third Jewish neighborhood built outside the Old City was Nahalat Shiv'a, which was founded in 1869 as a cooperative effort by seven families who pooled their funds to purchase the land and build homes. In 1875, the Jewish neighborhood of Kirya Ne'emana and the first of the Jewish neighborhoods that would make up the Nachlaot district were founded. Jewish settlement activities also began to take place outside Jerusalem in the 1870s. In 1870, Mikveh Israel was established as a Jewish agricultural school and the first new Jewish settlement in Palestine in modern times. In 1878, Jews from Safed founded the village of Gei Oni, later Rosh Pinna, and religious Jewish pioneers who had immigrated from Europe founded the settlement of Petah Tikva. The Jewish population of Haifa was also bolstered by immigration from Morocco and Turkey in the 1870s.[213]
In 1880, the Jewish population of Palestine numbered around 20,000 to 25,000, of whom two-thirds lived in Jerusalem.[214][215] The Jewish population, known as the Old Yishuv, was divided into two predominant clusters. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities which had been established in the late Mamluk and early Ottoman periods and the Arabic-speaking communities who had already been living there since before the coming of Islam and had been culturally and linguistically Arabized. The Sephardic community traced its origins to not only Sephardim who settled in Palestine, but local Arabized Jews who had intermarried into the Sephardic community[216] and Mizrahi Jews who had migrated from other parts of the Middle East and integrated into the Sephardic community. The second group was the Ashkenazi community, composed of primarily Haredi Jews who had migrated from Europe to settle in Palestine in the 18th and 19th centuries.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, tens of thousands of Jewish immigrants began arriving in Palestine and establishing new Jewish settlements. These immigrants were largely motivated by nationalism and a desire to live in the land of their ancestors as
British Mandate (1917–1948)
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Aliyah |
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In 1917, towards the end of World War I, following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Palestine was occupied by British forces. The United Kingdom was granted control of the area west of the River Jordan now comprising the
With the British conquest, Jews who had been expelled by the Ottomans were able to return, and Jewish immigration picked up again. The
In 1947, there were approximately 630,000 Jews living alongside approximately 1.2 million Arabs in Palestine. Following increasing levels of violence, the British government expressed a wish to withdraw from Palestine that year. The proposed
On 14 May 1948, one day before the end of the British Mandate, the leaders of the Jewish community in Palestine led by the future prime minister
State of Israel (1948–present)
The armies of
After the establishment of Israel, immigration of
. Of these, about 680,000 settled in Israel.Israel's Jewish population continued to grow at a very high rate for years, fed by waves of Jewish immigration from round the world, including the massive immigration wave of Soviet Jews, who arrived in Israel in the early 1990s, according to the Law of Return. Some 380,000 Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union arrived in 1990–91 alone.
Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 Suez Crisis, 1967 Six-Day War, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, and 2006 Lebanon War, as well as a nearly constant series of other conflicts, among them the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Despite the constant security threats, Israel—a majorly Jewish state—has thrived economically. Throughout the 1980s and the 1990s there were numerous liberalization measures: in monetary policy, in domestic capital markets, and in various instruments of governmental interference in economic activity. The role of government in the economy was considerably decreased. On the other hand, some governmental economic functions were increased: a national health insurance system was introduced, though private health providers continued to provide health services within the national system. Social welfare payments, such as unemployment benefits, child allowances, old age pensions and minimum income support, were expanded continuously, until they formed a major budgetary expenditure. These transfer payments compensated, to a large extent, for the continuous growth of income inequality, which had moved Israel from among the developed countries with the least income inequality to those with the most.
See also
- Demographic history of Palestine (region)
- Israeli Jews (Palestinian Jews)
- List of Jewish communities by country
- List of Jewish leaders in the Land of Israel
- List of Yeshivas and Midrashas in Israel
- Islamization)
- Time periods in the Palestine region
References
Citations
- ^ John Day, [In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel,] Bloomsbury Publishing, 2005 pp. 47.5, p. 48: 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'.
- ^ ubb, 1998. pp. 13–14
- ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
- ^ a b Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
- ^ Rauh, Nick. "Ancient Israel (the United and Divided Kingdom)". Purdue.edu. Purdue University. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
- ^ Catherine Hezser, Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine, Mohr Siebeck, 2001, pp. 170–171.
- ^ Michael Avi-Yonah, The Jews Under Roman and Byzantine Rule: A Political History of Palestine from the Bar Kokhba War to the Arab Conquest, Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1984, pp. 15–19, 20, 132–33, 241 cited William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.), The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, pp. 407ff.
- ^ a b Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine: 634–1099, p. 3.
- ^ "Jew", Oxford English Dictionary.
- ^ "Who Is a Jew?". Judaism101. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- ^ "A history of the Jewish nation: from the earliest times to the present day (1883) (archived)". 1883. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel. "Ethnicity and origin of the Iron I settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the real Israel stand up?." The Biblical archaeologist 59.4 (1996): 198–212.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel. The archaeology of the Israelite settlement. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1988.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel, and Nadav Na'aman, eds. From nomadism to monarchy: archaeological and historical aspects of early Israel. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1994.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel. "The archaeology of the United Monarchy: an alternative view." Levant 28.1 (1996): 177–87.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel, and Neil Asher Silberman. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster, 2002.
- ISBN 3-927120-37-5.
After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-3108-5.
- ^ McNutt 1999, p. 47.
- ^ K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction, A&C Black, 2001 p. 164: "It would seem that, in the eyes of Merneptah's artisans, Israel was a Canaanite group indistinguishable from all other Canaanite groups." "It is likely that Merneptah's Israel was a group of Canaanites located in the Jezreel Valley."
- ^ Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14
- ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
- ^ Stager in Coogan 1998, p. 91.
- ^ Dever 2003, p. 206.
- ^ Miller 1986, pp. 78–9.
- ^ McNutt 1999, p. 35.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed. ISBN 9780743223386. P. 107
- ^ McNutt 1999, p. 70.
- ^ Miller 2005, p. 98.
- ^ McNutt 1999, p. 72.
- ^ Miller 2005, p. 99.
- ^ Miller 2005, p. 105.
- ^ Lehman in Vaughn 1992, pp. 156–62.
- ^ "Daily Life in Ancient Israel". Biblical Archaeology Society. 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
- ^ Elizabeth Bloch-Smith and Beth Alpert Nakhai, "A Landscape Comes to Life: The Iron Age I", Near Eastern Archeology, Vol. 62, No. 2 (June 1999), pp. 62–92
- ^ Gil Ronen (31 October 2008). "Oldest Hebrew Text Discovered at King David's Border Fortress". Israel National News.
- ^ Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor, Khirbet Qeiyafa: Sha'arayim Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Volume 8, Article 22. ISSN 1203-1542.
- ^ Faust, Avraham; Garfinkel, Yosef; Mumcuoglu, Madeleine (2021). «The Study of the 10th Century BCE in the Early 21st Century CE: An Overview». Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology 1: 1-14. "The sophisticated methods of data collection and analysis that resulted from the debate significantly narrowed the chronological gap between the schools, leading most scholars to follow various versions of the traditional, or modified, chronology (e.g., Stager 2003; Mazar 2011; Katz and Faust 2014; Garfinkel et al. 2015; 2019; Dever 2017; Faust and Sapir 2018; Ortiz 2018; Master 2019)"
- ^ Jerusalem: The Biography by Simon Sebag Montefiore pp 28 and 39 Phoenix 2011
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3.
- ^ Finkelstein and Silber, The Bible Unearthed[page needed]
- ^ Kurkh stela: https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=367117&partId=1 For original inscription see http://rbedrosian.com/Downloads3/ancient_records_assyria1.pdf page 223
- ^ Mazar in Finkelstein 2007, p. 163.
- ^ Brown, William. "Ancient Israelite Technology". World History Encyclopedia.
- ^ "The keys to the kingdom". Haaretz. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
- ^ Mazar, Amihai (2010). "Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy". Archaeological and Biblical Perspectives: 29.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0.
- ^ Pileggi, Tamar; AP. "New look at ancient shards suggests Bible even older than thought". Times of Israel. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
- ^ Lemche 1998, p. 85.
- ^ First Impression: What We Learn from King Ahaz's Seal Archived 22 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine by Robert Deutsch.
- ^ http://www.utexas.edu/courses/classicalarch/readings/sennprism.html column 2 line 61 to column 3 line 49
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This is followed by Lekhah Dodi … a hymn composed by Rabbi Shlomo Halevy Alkabetz, a Palestinian poet of the sixteenth century.
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- ^ Adena Tanenbaum, Didacticism or Literary Legerdemain? Philosophical and Ethical Themes in Zechariah Aldahiri's Sefer Hamusar, in Adaptations and Innovations: Studies on the Interaction between Jewish and Islamic Thought and Literature from the Early Middle Ages to the Late Twentieth Century, Dedicated to Professor Joel L. Kraemer, ed. Y. Tzvi Langermann and Josef Stern (Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 2008), pp. 355–379
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In 1660, under Mohammed IV. (1649-87), Safed was destroyed by the Arabs.
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Safed, hotbed of mystics, is not mentioned in the Zebi adventure. Its community had been massacred in 1660, when the town was destroyed by Arabs, and only one Jew escaped.
- ^ Sidney Mendelssohn. The Jews of Asia: especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. (1920), p. 241. "Long before the culmination of Sabbathai's mad career, Safed had been destroyed by the Arabs and the Jews had suffered severely, while in the same year (1660) there was a great fire in Constantinople in which they endured heavy losses..."
- ^ Franco, Moïse (1897). Essai sur l'histoire des Israélites de l'Empire ottoman: depuis les origines jusqu'à nos jours. Librairie A. Durlacher. p. 88. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
Moins de douze ans après, en 1660, sous Mohammed IV, la ville de Safed, si importante autrefois dans les annales juives parce qu'elle était habitée exclusivement par les Israélites, fut détruite par les Arabes, au point qu'il n' y resta, dit une chroniquer une seule ame juive.
- ^ A Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine, p. 409. "Sultan Seliman surrounded it with a wall in 5300 (1540), and it commenced to revive a little, and to be inhabited by the most distinguished Jewish literati; but it was destroyed again in 5420 (1660)." [1]
- ^ Joel Rappel. History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned..."
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- ^ "The Churva Synagogue in Jerusalem". www.jewishmag.com. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
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External links
- Yearning for Zion
- The conquests of Jerusalem in 614CE and 638CE within the context of attempts at Jewish restoration
- Timeline of the History of the Jews and the Land of Israel Based on "A Historical Survey of the Jewish Population in Palestine Presented to the United Nations in 1947
- The Historyscoper