Netherlands in World War II
Despite Dutch neutrality,
German occupation lasted in some areas until the
Due to the high variation in the survival rate of Jewish inhabitants among local regions in the Netherlands, scholars have questioned the validity of a single explanation at the national level. In part due to the well-organised population registers, about 70% of the country's Jewish population were killed in the course of World War II – a much higher percentage than in either Belgium or France,[3] although lower than in Lithuania. Declassified records revealed that the Germans paid a bounty to Dutch police and administration officials to locate and identify Jews, aiding in their capture.[4] Communists in and around the city of Amsterdam organised the February strike – a general strike (February 1941) to protest against the persecution of Jewish citizens.
World War II occurred in four distinct phases in the Netherlands:
- September 1939 to May 1940: After the war broke out, the Netherlands declared neutrality. The country was subsequently invaded and occupied.
- May 1940 to June 1941: An economic boom caused by orders from Germany, combined with the "velvet glove" approach from Arthur Seyss-Inquart, resulted in a comparatively mild occupation.
- June 1941 to June 1944: As the war intensified, Germany demanded higher contributions from occupied territories, resulting in a decline of living standards. Repression against the Jewish population intensified and thousands were deported to extermination camps. The "velvet glove" approach ended.
- June 1944 to May 1945: Conditions deteriorated further, leading to starvation and lack of fuel. The German occupation authorities gradually lost control over the situation. Nazis wanted to make a last stand and commit acts of destruction. Others tried to mitigate the situation.
The Allies liberated most of the south of the Netherlands in the second half of 1944. The rest of the country, especially the west and north, remained under German occupation and suffered from a famine at the end of 1944, known as the "Hunger Winter". On 5 May 1945, German surrender at Lüneburg Heath led to the final liberation of the whole country.
Background
The Dutch colonies such as the
Numerous fascist movements emerged in the Netherlands during the Great Depression era, which were inspired by
During the interwar period, the government undertook a significant increase in civil infrastructure projects and land reclamation, including the Zuiderzee Works. That resulted in the final draining of seawater from the Wieringermeer polder and the completion of the Afsluitdijk.[5]
Neutrality
"The new Reich has endeavored to continue the traditional friendship with Holland [sic]. It has not taken over any existing differences between the two countries and has not created any new ones."
German guarantee of neutrality, 6 October 1939[7]
In late 1939, with war already declared between the British Empire, France and Nazi Germany, the German government issued a guarantee of neutrality to the Netherlands.[7] The government gradually mobilised the Dutch military from August 1939 that had reached its full strength by April 1940.[11]
German invasion
Despite its policy of neutrality, the Netherlands were invaded on the morning of 10 May 1940, without a formal declaration of war, by German forces moving simultaneously into
The
The invading forces advanced rapidly but faced significant resistance. A
In the eastern Netherlands, the Germans succeeded in pushing the Dutch back from the Grebbe Line, but their advance was slowed by the Dutch fortifications on the narrow Afsluitdijk Causeway that linked the north-eastern and the north-western parts of the Netherlands.[19] The German forces advanced rapidly and, by the fourth day, were in control of most of the east of the country.[19]
The Dutch realised that neither British nor French troops could reach the Netherlands in sufficient numbers to halt the invasion, particularly with the speed of the
Bombing of Rotterdam
Fighting in Rotterdam had taken place since the first day of the campaign, when German infantrymen in seaplanes landed on the Maas River and captured several bridges intact. The Germans hesitated to risk a tank attack on the city for fear of heavy casualties. Instead, the German commander presented an ultimatum to the Dutch commander in the city. He demanded the surrender of the Dutch garrison and threatened to destroy the city by aerial bombing if it did not accept.[20] The ultimatum was returned on a technicality since it had not been signed by the German commander.[20] While the corrected ultimatum was being resubmitted, Luftwaffe bombers, unaware that negotiations were ongoing, struck the city.[20]
During the
Dutch surrender
The Dutch high command was shocked by the Rotterdam Blitz. Knowing that the army was running low on supplies and ammunition and receiving news that the city of Utrecht had been given an ultimatum similar to that of Rotterdam,[16] Winkelman held a meeting with other Dutch generals. They decided that further resistance was futile and wanted to protect civilian residents. In the afternoon of 14 May, Winkelman issued a proclamation to his army to order them to surrender:
This afternoon Germany bombarded Rotterdam, while Utrecht has also been threatened with destruction. In order to spare the civil population and to prevent further bloodshed I feel myself justified in ordering all troops concerned to suspend operations ... By great superiority of the most modern means [the enemy] has succeeded in breaking our resistance. We have nothing wherewith to reproach ourselves in connection with this war. Your bearing and that of the forces was calm, firm of purpose and worthy of the Netherlands.
— Proclamation of General Winkelman, 14 May 1940.[21]
On 15 May, the Netherlands officially signed the surrender with Germany. Dutch forces in the province of
During the four-day campaign, about 2,300 Dutch soldiers were killed and 7,000 wounded, and more than 3,000 Dutch civilians also died. The Germans lost 2,200 men killed and 7,000 wounded. In addition, 1,300 German soldiers captured by the Dutch during the campaign, many around The Hague, had been shipped to Britain and remained
Queen Wilhelmina and the Dutch government succeeded in escaping from the Netherlands before the surrender and formed a government-in-exile. Princess Juliana and her children went to Canada for safety.
German occupation
Life in occupied Netherlands
Initially, the Netherlands was placed under German military control. However, after the refusal of the Dutch government to return, the Netherlands was placed under control by a German civilian governor on 29 May 1940, unlike France or Denmark, which had their own governments, and Belgium, which was under German military control. The civil government, the Reichskommissariat Niederlande, was headed by the Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart.
The German occupiers implemented a policy of Gleichschaltung ("enforced conformity" or "coordination") and systematically eliminated non-Nazi organisations. In 1940, the German regime more or less immediately outlawed all socialist and communist parties. In 1941, it forbade all parties except for the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands.
Gleichschaltung was an enormous shock to the Dutch, who had traditionally had separate institutions for all main religious groups, particularly Catholic and Protestant, because of decades of
A long-term aim of the Nazis was to incorporate the Netherlands into the Greater Germanic Reich.[23] Adolf Hitler thought very highly of the Dutch people, who were considered to be fellow members of the Aryan "master race".[24]
Initially, Seyss-Inquart applied the 'velvet glove' approach; by appeasing the population he tried to win them for the National Socialist ideology. That meant that he kept repression and economic extraction as low as possible and tried to co-operate with the elite and government officials in the country. There was also a pragmatic reason since the NSB offered insufficient candidates and had no great popular support. The German market went open, and Dutch companies benefited greatly from export to Germany even if that might be seen as collaboration if goods might be used for German war efforts. In any case, despite the British victory in the Battle of Britain, many considered a German victory a realistic possibility and that it would therefore be wise to side with the winner. As a result, with the ban on other political parties, the NSB grew rapidly. Although gasoline pumps had been sealed in 1940, the occupation seemed tolerable.
After the failure of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 and the subsequent German defeats at Moscow and Stalingrad in the Eastern Front of World War II, Germany increased economic extraction from its occupied territories, including the Netherlands. Economic extraction increased, and production was limited mostly to sectors relevant for the war effort. Repression increased, especially against the Jewish population.
After the Allied invasion of June 1944, the railroad strike and the frontline running through the Netherlands caused the Randstad to be cut off from food and fuel. That resulted in acute need and starvation, the
Luftwaffe
The Luftwaffe was especially interested in the Netherlands, as the country was designated to become the main area for the air force bases from which to attack the United Kingdom. The Germans started construction of ten major military air bases on the day after the formal Dutch surrender, 15 May 1940. Each of them was intended to have at least 2 or 3 hard surface runways, a dedicated railway connection, major built-up and heated repair and overhaul facilities, extensive indoor and outdoor storage spaces, and most had housing and facilities for 2,000 to 3,000 men. Each air base also had an auxiliary and often a decoy airfield, complete with mock-up planes made from plywood. The largest became Deelen Air Base, north of Arnhem (12 former German buildings at Deelen are now national monuments). Adjacent to Deelen, the large central air control bunker for Belgium and the Netherlands, Diogenes, was set up.
Within a year, the attack strategy had to be altered to a defensive operation. The ensuing air war over the Netherlands cost almost 20,000 airmen (Allied and German) their lives and 6,000 planes went down over the country, an average of 3 per day during the five years of the war.
The Netherlands turned into the first line of western air defence for Germany and its industrial heartland of the
Some 30,000 Luftwaffe men and women were involved in the Netherlands throughout the war.[25]
Forced labour and resistance
The Arbeitseinsatz, the drafting of civilians for forced labour, was imposed on the Netherlands. That obliged every man between 18 and 45 (530,000) to work in German factories, which were bombed regularly by the western Allies. Those who refused were forced into hiding. As food and many other goods were taken out of the Netherlands, rationing increased (with ration books). At times, the resistance would raid distribution centres to obtain ration cards to be distributed to those in hiding.
For the resistance to succeed, it was sometimes necessary for its members to feign collaboration with the Germans. After the war, that led to difficulties for those who pretended to collaborate when they could not prove they had been in the resistance, which was difficult because it was in the nature of the job to keep it a secret.
Atlantic Wall
The
Holocaust
Shortly after it was established, the military regime began to
Before the February strike, the Nazis had installed a Jewish Council (Dutch: Joodse Raad). This was a board of Jews, headed by Professor David Cohen and Abraham Asscher. Independent Jewish organisations, such as the Committee for Jewish Refugees — founded by Asscher and Cohen in 1933 — were closed.[27] The Jewish Council ultimately served as an instrument for organising the identification and deportation of Jews more efficiently; the Jews on the council were told and convinced they were helping the Jews.[28]
In 1939 the Jewish population of the Netherlands was between 140,000 and 150,000, 24,000-34,000 of whom were refugees from Germany and German-controlled areas. That year, the Committee for Jewish Refugees established the Westerbork transit camp to process incoming refugees; in 1942 the German occupiers repurposed it to process outgoing Jews to labour and concentration camps. Over half of the total Jewish population—about 79,000—lived in Amsterdam; this number increased as Germans forcibly moved Dutch Jews into the city in preparation for mass deportation.
In May 1942, Jews were ordered to wear Star of David badges. The Catholic Church in the Netherlands publicly condemned the government's action in a letter read at all Sunday parish services. The Nazi government began to treat the Dutch more harshly, and notable socialists were imprisoned. Later in the war, Catholic priests, including Titus Brandsma, were deported to concentration camps.[28]
Concentration camps were built at
Germany was particularly effective at deporting and killing Jews in the Netherlands. By 1945, the Dutch Jewish population was about a quarter of what it had been (about 35,000). Of that number, about 8,500 escaped deportation by being in a mixed marriage to a non-Jew; about 16,500 hid or otherwise evaded detection by German authorities; and 7,000-8,000 escaped the Netherlands for the duration of the occupation.
The Dutch survival rate of 27% is much lower than in neighbouring Belgium, where 60% of Jews survived, and France, where 75% survived.[30] Historians have offered several hypotheses for the low survival rate, including:
- The Netherlands included religion in its national records, which reduced the opportunity for Jews to mask their identity.
- Dutch authorities and the Dutch people were unusually co-operative with German authorities.
- The flat, unforested Dutch landscape deprived Jews of potential hiding places.
Marnix Croes and Peter Tammes examined the survival rates among the different regions of the Netherlands. They conclude that most of the hypotheses do not explain the data. They suggest that a more likely explanation was the varying "ferocity" with which the Germans and their Dutch collaborators hunted Jews in hiding in the different regions.[30] In 2002, Ad Van Liempt published Kopgeld: Nederlandse premiejagers op zoek naar joden, 1943 (Bounty: Dutch bounty hunters in search of Jews, 1943), published in English as Hitler's Bounty Hunters: The Betrayal of the Jews (2005). He found in newly-declassified records that the Germans paid a bounty to police and other collaborators, such as the Colonnie Henneicke group, for tracking down Jews.[31]
A 2018 publication, De 102.000 namen, lists the 102,000 known victims of the persecution of Jewish, Sinti, and Roma people from the Netherlands; the book is published by Boom, Amsterdam, under the auspices of the Westerbork Remembrance Center.[32]
Collaboration
Many Dutch men and women chose or were forced to collaborate with the German regime or joined the German armed forces, which usually would mean being placed in the Waffen-SS. Others, like members of the
The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands was the only legal political party in the Netherlands from 1941 and was actively involved in collaboration with the German occupiers. In 1941, when Germany still seemed certain to win the war, about three per cent of the adult male population belonged to the NSB.
After the war broke out, the NSB sympathised with the Germans but nevertheless advocated strict neutrality for the Netherlands. In May 1940, after the German invasion, 10,000 NSB members and sympathizers were put in custody by the Dutch government. Soon after the Dutch defeat, on 14 May 1940, they were set free by German troops. In June 1940, NSB leader
In 1940, the German regime had outlawed all socialist and communist parties. In 1941, it forbade all parties except for the NSB, which openly collaborated with the occupation forces. Its membership grew to about 100,000. The newcomers (meikevers, Cockchafers or Maybugs, where May refers to the month of the German invasion) were shunned by many existing members, who accused them of opportunist behaviour. The NSB played an important role in lower government and civil service. Every new mayor appointed by the German occupation government was a member of the NSB. However, for most higher functions, the Germans preferred to leave the existing elite in place since they knew that the NSB neither offered enough suitable candidates nor enjoyed enough popular support.
After the German signing of surrender on 6 May 1945, the NSB was outlawed. Mussert was arrested the following day, and was executed on 7 May 1946. Many members of the NSB were arrested, but few were convicted.
In September 1940, the
Between 22,000 and 25,000 Dutchmen volunteered to serve in the
The Nederland brigade participated in fighting on the Eastern Front during the Battle of Narva, with several soldiers receiving the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, Nazi Germany's highest award for bravery.
Another form of collusion was providing goods and services essential to the German war efforts. Especially in 1940 and 1941, when a German victory was still a possibility, Dutch companies were willing to provide such goods to the greedily-purchasing Germans. Strategic supplies fell in German hands, and in May 1940 German officers placed their first orders with Dutch shipyards. The co-operation with the German industry was facilitated by the fact that due to the occupation the German market 'opened' and due to facilitating behaviour from the side of the partly pro-German elite. Many directors justified their behaviour with the argument that otherwise, the Germans would have closed down their company or would have replaced them with NSB members and so they could still exercise some limited influence. After the war, no heavy sentences were dealt to high officials and company directors.
Dutch resistance
The Dutch resistance to the Nazi occupation during World War II developed relatively slowly, but its counterintelligence, domestic sabotage, and communications networks provided key support to Allied forces beginning in 1944 and through the liberation of the country. Discovery by the Germans of involvement in the resistance meant an immediate death sentence.
The country's terrain, lack of wilderness and dense population made it difficult to conceal any illicit activities, and it was bordered by German-controlled territory, which offered no escape route except by sea. Resistance in the Netherlands took the form of small-scale decentralised cells engaged in independent activities. The
One of the riskiest activities was hiding and sheltering refugees and enemies of the Nazi regime, Jewish families, underground operatives, draft-age Dutch, and others. Collectively these people were known as onderduikers ('under-divers'). Later in the war, this system of people-hiding was also used to protect downed Allied airmen. Reportedly, resistance doctors in Heerlen concealed an entire hospital floor from German troops.[36]
In February 1943, a Dutch resistance cell rang the doorbell of the former head of the Dutch general staff and now-collaborating Lieutenant general Hendrik Seyffardt in the Hague. Seyffardt commanded the campaign to recruit Dutch volunteers for the Waffen-SS and the German war effort on the Eastern Front. After he answered and identified himself, he was shot twice and died the following day. The assassination of the high-level official triggered a harsh reprisal from SS General Hanns Albin Rauter, who ordered the killing of 50 Dutch hostages and a series of raids on Dutch universities. On October 1 and 2, 1944, the Dutch resistance attacked German troops near the village of Putten, which resulted in war crimes on behalf of the occupying Germans. After the attack, part of the town was destroyed, and seven people were shot in the Putten raid. The entire male population of Putten was deported and most were subjected to forced labour; 48 out of 552 survived the camps. The Dutch resistance attacked Rauter's car on March 6, 1945, unaware of the identity of its occupant, which in turn led to the killings at Woeste Hoeve, where 116 men were rounded up and executed at the site of the ambush and another 147 Gestapo prisoners executed elsewhere.[37]
Dutch government and army in exile
The Dutch army's successful resistance in the Battle for The Hague gave the royal family an opportunity to escape. Several days before the surrender, Princess Juliana, Prince Bernhard and their daughters (Princess Beatrix and Princess Irene) travelled from The Hague to London. On 13 May, Queen Wilhelmina and key members of the Dutch government followed. The royal family were guests at Buckingham Palace, where Irene was christened on 31 May. Juliana later took Beatrix and Irene to Canada, where they remained for the duration of the war.[38]
Shortly after the German victory, the Dutch government, led by Prime Minister
Dutch East Indies and war in the Far East
On 8 December 1941, the Netherlands declared war on the
).Dutch naval ships joined forces with the Allies to form the
After Japanese troops had landed on
A Dutch government study described how the Japanese military forcibly recruited women as prostitutes in the Dutch East Indies[41] and concluded that among the 200 to 300 European women working in Japanese military brothels, "some sixty five were most certainly forced into prostitution".[42] Others, faced with starvation in the refugee camps, agreed to offers of food and payment for work, the nature of which was not completely revealed to them.[43][44][45][46][47]
The Dutch submarines escaped and resumed hostilities with the Allies from bases in
Many Dutch Army and Navy airmen escaped and, with aeroplanes provided by the Americans, formed the
Gradually, control of the Netherlands East Indies was wrested away from the Japanese. The largest Allied invasion of the Pacific Theatre took place in July 1945 with Australian landings on the island of Borneo to seize the strategic oil-fields from the Japanese forces, which were now cut off. At the time, the Japanese had already begun independence negotiations with Indonesian nationalists such as Sukarno, and Indonesian forces had taken control of sizeable portions of Sumatra and Java. After the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalists, led by Sukarno declared Indonesian independence, and a four-year armed and diplomatic struggle between the Netherlands and the Indonesian nationalists began.
Dutch civilians, who suffered greatly during their internment, finally returned home to a land that had greatly suffered as well.[48]
Final year
After the
Parts of the southern Netherlands were not liberated by Operation Market Garden, which had established a narrow salient between Eindhoven and Nijmegen. In the east of
At the same time, the Allies also advanced into the province of Zeeland. At the start of October 1944, the Germans still occupied Walcheren and dominated the Scheldt estuary and its approaches to the port of Antwerp. The crushing need for a large supply port forced the Battle of the Scheldt in which First Canadian Army fought on both sides of the estuary during the month to clear the waterways. Large battles were fought to clear the Breskens Pocket, Woensdrecht and the Zuid-Beveland Peninsula of German forces, primarily "stomach" units of the Wehrmacht as well as German paratroopers of Battle Group Chill. German units composed of convalescents and the medically unfit were named for their ailment; thus, "stomach" units for soldiers with ulcers.[49]
By 31 October, resistance south of the Scheldt had collapsed, and the
After the offensive on the Scheldt,
The Dutch government had not wanted to use the old water line when the Germans had invaded in 1940. It was still possible to create an island out of the Holland region by destroying dikes and flooding the polders, which contained the main cities. The Dutch government had decided that too many people would die to justify the flooding. However, Hitler ordered for Fortress Holland (German: Festung Holland) to be held at any price. Much of the northern Netherlands remained in German hands until the Rhine crossings in late March 1945.
Hunger Winter
The winter of 1944–1945 was very harsh, which led to "hunger journeys" and many cases of starvation (about 30,000 casualties), exhaustion, cold and disease. The winter is known as the Hongerwinter (literally, "hunger winter") or the Dutch famine of 1944. In response to a general railway strike ordered by the Dutch government-in-exile in expectation of a general German collapse near the end of 1944, the Germans cut off all food and fuel shipments to the western provinces in which 4.5 million people lived. Severe malnutrition was common and 18,000 people starved to death. Relief came at the beginning of May 1945.[50]
Bombing of the Bezuidenhout
On 3 March 1945, the British
Liberation
After crossing the Rhine at Wesel and Rees, Canadian, British and Polish forces entered the Netherlands from the east and liberated the eastern and the northern provinces. Notable battles during the movement are the Battle of Groningen and the Battle of Otterlo, both in April 1945.
The western provinces were not liberated until the surrender of German forces in the Netherlands was negotiated on the eve of 5 May 1945 (three days before the general capitulation of Germany), in the
During
On the island of
After being liberated, Dutch citizens began taking the law into their own hands, like in other liberated countries, such as France. Collaborators and Dutch women who had relationships with men of the German occupying force, called "Moffenmeiden" were abused and humiliated in public, usually by having their heads shaved and painted orange.[citation needed]
Casualties
By the end of the war, 205,901 Dutch men, women and children had died of war-related causes. The Netherlands had the highest per capita death rate of all Nazi-occupied countries in Western Europe (2.36%).
Postwar
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2017) |
After the war, some accused of collaborating with the Germans were lynched or otherwise punished without trial. Men who had fought with the Germans in the Wehrmacht or Waffen-SS were used to clear minefields and suffered losses accordingly. Others were sentenced by courts for treason. Some were proven to have been wrongly arrested and were cleared of charges, sometimes after they had been held in custody for a long period of time.
The Dutch government initially developed plans to annexe a sizeable portion of Germany (
The bank balances of
The end of the war also meant the final loss of the Dutch East Indies. After the
World War II left many lasting effects on Dutch society. On 4 May the Dutch commemorate those who died during the war, and all wars since. Among the living, there are many who still bear the emotional scars of the war from both the first and the second generation. In 2000, the government was still granting 24,000 people an annual compensatory payment although that also includes victims from later wars, such as the Korean War.
In 2017, the
See also
History of the Netherlands |
---|
Netherlands portal |
- Netherlands in World War I
- Chronological overview of the liberation of Dutch cities and towns during World War II
- Dutch resistance
- Englandspiel
- List of Dutch military equipment of World War II
- Military history of the Netherlands during World War II
- Corrie ten Boom
- Jan de Hartog
- Philip Slier
- Maurice Frankenhuis
- Canada-Netherlands relations
- Liberation Day (Netherlands)
References
- ISBN 9780804701525.
- ISBN 9780313293252.
- S2CID 37573804.
- ^ Tim Cole, Review: Hitler's Bounty Hunters: The Betrayal of the Jews, English Historical Review, Volume CXXI, Issue 494, 1 December 2006, Pages 1562–1563, https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cel364
- ^ a b c d e "The Netherlands between the Wars, 1929–1940". History of the Netherlands. World History at KLMA. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- S2CID 144805335.
- ^ a b TC-32 (6 October 1939). "Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression". Vol. I. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ISBN 90-5356-818-2.
- ISBN 0-85496-146-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-41667-2.
- ^ a b c d "Dutch Army Strategy and Armament in WWII". Waroverholland.nl. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ "The Germans attack in the West". World War 2 Today. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ISBN 90-12-08959-X
- ^ "Dutch Armoured Cars type Landsverk". Waroverholland.nl. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ "Battle of the Netherlands". Totally History. 12 June 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2013.
- ^ a b "Capitulation". Waroverholland.nl. Retrieved 7 July 2013.
- ISBN 90-12-08959-X
- ^ Various. Belgium: The Official Account of What Happened, 1939–40. London: Belgian Ministry for Foreign Affairs. pp. 32–6.
- ^ a b c Teeuwisse, Joeri (17 March 2006). "Life During The Dutch Occupation – Part 2: May 1940, The Battle For The Netherlands". Armchair General. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f "May 14 – Rotterdam". Waroverholland.nl. Retrieved 7 July 2013.
- ^ Ashton, H.S. (1941). The Netherlands at War. London. pp. 24–5.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "The Royal Dutch Navy". Waroverholland.nl. Retrieved 7 July 2013.
- ISBN 9780307766946.
- ISBN 9781439105382.
- ^ Vliegvelden in Oorlogstijd, Netherlands Institute for Military History (NIMH), The Hague 2009
- OCLC 17551064. Page number needed.
- OCLC 861478330.
- ^ OCLC 869091747.
- ISBN 978-0-19-956680-8.
- ^ S2CID 37573804.
- ^ Tim Cole, Review: Hitler's Bounty Hunters: The Betrayal of the Jews, English Historical Review, Volume CXXI, Issue 494, 1 December 2006, Pages 1562–1563, https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cel364
- ISBN 9789024419739. Reviewed in "De 102.000 Namen – Boek met alle namen vermoorde Joden, Sinti en Roma". Historiek.nl (in Dutch). 26 January 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
- ^ "Waffen-SS (in numbers)". www.niod.nl. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
- ^ Georg Tessin, Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen SS 1939–1945, Biblio Verlag, vol. 2 for Nederland, vol. 14 for Landstorm Nederland
- ^ Abraham J. Edelheit and Hershel Edelheit, History of the Holocaust: a handbook and dictionary (1994) p 411
- ^ Mark Zuehlke, On to Victory: The Canadian Liberation of the Netherlands, (2010) p 187
- ISBN 0-8032-9618-5.
- ^ Janet Davison (April 29, 2013). "Abdicating Dutch queen was a wartime Ottawa schoolgirl". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
- ^ "THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS DECLARES WAR WITH JAPAN". ibiblio. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
- ^ L. Klemen, Forgotten Campaign. The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 (1999).
- ^ Ministerie van Buitenlandse zaken 1994, pp. 6–9, 11, 13–14
- ^ "Digital Museum: The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women's Fund".
- ^ Soh, Chunghee Sarah. "Japan's 'Comfort Women'". International Institute for Asian Studies. Archived from the original on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2013-11-08.
- ISBN 978-0-226-76777-2.
- ^ "Women made to become comfort women – Netherlands". Asian Women's Fund.
- ^ Poelgeest. Bart van, 1993, Gedwongen prostitutie van Nederlandse vrouwen in voormalig Nederlands-Indië 's-Gravenhage: Sdu Uitgeverij Plantijnstraat. [Tweede Kamer, vergaderjaar 93-1994, 23 607, nr. 1.]
- ^ Poelgeest, Bart van. "Report of a study of Dutch government documents on the forced prostitution of Dutch women in the Dutch East Indies during the Japanese occupation." [Unofficial Translation, January 24, 1994.]
- S2CID 143970869.
- ISBN 0-684-80330-5.
- S2CID 145169282.
- ISBN 1-55002-547-3.
- ^ Boersma, Bauke (29 February 2020). "Met Franse para's begon bevrijding van Fryslân". Friesch Dagblad.
- ^ See World War II casualties
- ^ See World War II casualties#endnote Indonesia
- ^ "Diepe verontschuldigingen' van Rode Kruis" [Deep apologies of the Red Cross]. De Telegraaf (in Dutch). 2017-11-01. Retrieved 2018-10-14.
- ^ "Dutch Red Cross apologizes for failing Jews in WWII". The Times of Israel. AFP. 1 November 2017. Retrieved 2018-10-14.
Sources
- ISSN 0921-7371. Archived from the originalon September 27, 2007.
Further reading
- Bijvoet, Tom and Van Arragon Hutten, Anne. The Dutch in Wartime, Survivors Remember (Mokeham Publishing, Oakville, Ontario 2011-2017) The Dutch in Wartime
- Croes, Marnix (Winter 2006). "The Holocaust in the Netherlands and the Rate of Jewish Survival'" (PDF). Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 20 (3). Research and Documentation Center of the Netherlands Ministry of Justice: 474–499. S2CID 37573804.
- De Zwarte, Ingrid. The Hunger Winter: Fighting Famine in the Occupied Netherlands, 1944–1945 (Cambridge University Press, 2020) online.
- Dewulf, Jeroen. Spirit of Resistance: Dutch Clandestine Literature during the Nazi Occupation (Rochester NY: Camden House 2010)
- Diederichs, Monika. "Stigma and Silence: Dutch Women, German Soldiers and their children", in Kjersti Ericsson and Eva Simonsen, eds. Children of World War II: The Hidden Enemy Legacy (Oxford U.P. 2005), 151–64.
- Foot, Michael, ed. Holland at war against Hitler: Anglo-Dutch relations 1940–1945 (1990) excerpt and text search
- Foray, Jennifer L. "The 'Clean Wehrmacht' in the German-occupied Netherlands, 1940–5," Journal of Contemporary History 2010 45:768-787
- Friedhoff, Herman. Requiem for the Resistance: The Civilian Struggle Against Nazism in Holland and Germany (1989)
- Goddard, Lance. Canada and the liberation of the Netherlands, May 1945 (2005)
- Hirschfeld, Gerhard. Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: The Netherlands under German Occupation 1940–1945 (Oxford U.P., 1998)
- Hirschfeld, Gerhard. "Collaboration and Attentism in the Netherlands 1940–41," Journal of Contemporary History (1981) 16#3 pp 467–486. Focus on the "Netherlands Union" active in 1940–41 in JSTOR
- Hitchcock, William I. The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe (2009) ch 3 is "Hunger: The Netherlands and the Politics of Food," pp 98–129
- Maas, Walter B. The Netherlands at war: 1940–1945 (1970)
- Mark, Chris (1997). Schepen van de Koninklijke Marine in W.O. II. Alkmaar: De Alk b.v. ISBN 9789060135228.
- Moore, Bob. " Occupation, Collaboration and Resistance: Some Recent Publications on the Netherlands During the Second World War," European History Quarterly (1991) 211 pp 109–118. Online at Sage
- Sellin, Thorsten, ed. "The Netherlands during German Occupation," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 245, May, 1946 pp i to 180 in JSTOR, 18 essays by experts; focus on home front economics, society, Resistance, Jews
- van der Zee, Henri A. The hunger winter: occupied Holland, 1944–1945 (U of Nebraska Press, 1998) excerpt and text search
- Warmbrunn, Werner. The Dutch under German Occupation 1940–1945 (Stanford U.P. 1963)
- Zuehlke, Mark. On to Victory: The Canadian Liberation of the Netherlands, March 23 – May 5, 1945 (D & M Publishers, 2010.)
External links
- Canada and Holland The liberation of the Netherlands with photos and video footage.
- Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War – The Liberation of the Netherlands, 1944–1945
- Administrators of the German occupied Netherlands during WW II at the Wayback Machine (archived January 24, 2004)
- The invasion of the Netherlands in 1940
- Dutch Resistance Museum
- World War II: Dutch aftermath and recovery
- Beeldbankwo2 (Photobank WWII), a project led by the Dutch National Archives
- De Oorlog – A NPS Documentary series about World War II and the Netherlands
- The Dutch in Wartime, survivors remember – Dutch immigrants to Canada and the USA share their memories of war and occupation
- Liberation of the Netherlands