History of Portuguese
The
Social history
Romanization
Arriving on the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC, the ancient Romans brought with them Latin, from which all Romance languages descend. The language was spread by arriving Roman soldiers, settlers and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous civilizations. Later, the inhabitants of the cities of Lusitania and the rest of Romanized Iberia were recognized as citizens of Rome.
Roman control of the western part of Hispania was not consolidated until the campaigns of Augustus in 26 BC. Although the western territories to the south of the Tagus River were conquered only after the victory of Licinius Crassus in the year 93 BC,[1] only an estimated four hundred words of the native languages[2] persist in modern Portuguese. After 200 years of wars, first with the Carthaginians in the Eastern part of the peninsula, and then with the local inhabitants, Emperor Augustus conquered the whole peninsula, which was named Hispania. He then divided it into three provinces: Hispania Tarraconensis, Hispania Baetica, and Lusitania, the latter of which included most of modern Portugal. At the end of the 3rd century, Emperor Diocletian split Tarraconensis into three parts, creating the adjacent province of Gallaecia, which geographically enclosed the remaining part of Portugal, and modern-day Galicia in the northwestern region of Spain.
Iberian Romance
Between AD 409 and 711, as the Roman Empire was collapsing, the Iberian Peninsula was
From 711, with the
Proto-Portuguese
Old Portuguese | |
---|---|
Proto-Portuguese | |
Purtuguæz ڤـُرتـُــݢـﻠﯩــﺲ | |
Pronunciation | [puɾtuˈɣɜʃ], [puɻtuˈɡejs] |
Native to | Portugal, Brazil |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | – |
Excerpt of medieval Portuguese poetry[4] |
---|
Das que vejo |
non desejo |
outra senhor se vós non, |
e desejo |
tan sobejo, |
mataria um leon, |
senhor do meu coraçon: |
fin roseta, |
bela sobre toda fror, |
fin roseta, |
non me meta |
en tal coita voss'amor! |
João de Lobeira (1270?–1330?) |
The oldest surviving records containing written
The lyric period
What modern scholars call Galician-Portuguese was originally the native language of the medieval
The divergence of Galician-Portuguese
Portugal was formally recognized as an independent kingdom in 1143 by the
Portuguese outside of Portugal
Portuguese is the second most spoken Romance language, behind Spanish, partially because of the large population of speakers in Brazil, where it is the national language.[5] There are many respects in which Brazilian Portuguese differs from European Portuguese in sound and structure.
Another notable difference is the presence of more audible vowels in Brazilian Portuguese.[6] Beyond this, the nuances of spoken versions of both language practices continue to evolve as generations of speakers age and the world continues to globalize, leading to changes in language practices internationally. Portuguese has been made an official language of Mozambique, Angola, the Cape Verde Islands, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, East Timor and Macao.[7]
Standardization during the Renaissance
The end of "Old Portuguese" was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, in 1516.
"Modern Portuguese" developed from the early 16th century to the present. During the
Expansion during the age of discovery
The second period of Old Portuguese covers the time from the 14th to the 16th centuries and is marked by the Portuguese discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. Colonisers, traders and missionaries spread the Portuguese language to many regions in
Some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in
Historical sound changes
In both
Medieval Galician-Portuguese phonology
Modern Portuguese phonology
Around the 16th century, according to Fernão de Oliveira's Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa, in Chapter VIII, /a/ and /ɐ/ would already be considered as different phonemes. As a result, the vowel phonology would consist about an 8-oral-vowel system /ɐ, a, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ, u/ and a 5-nasal-vowel system /ɐ̃, ẽ, ĩ, õ, ũ/; possibly resulting that /ɐ – a, e – ɛ, o – ɔ/ would be raised to /ɐ, e, o/ in unstressed syllables (even in final syllables).[12] Prosodic change in the Classical to Modern pronunciations of Portuguese has been studied through a statistical analysis in evolution of written texts in the 16th and 17th centuries.[13]
Contemporary Portuguese phonology
From the 16th century to now, Brazilian and European varieties started evolving separately, resulting in meaningful differences regarding vowel phonology. Brazilian Portuguese conserves the 8-oral-vowel system, but European and African varieties innovated by creating a 9th new vowel: /ɨ/, generally used when "e" is unstressed.
- European Portuguese (EP): it has taken a step further: /ɐ – a, e – ɛ, o – ɔ/ are raised to /ɐ, ɨ, u/ in unstressed syllables, except by some words with double-consonant sequences where the first consonant was mute or not (the mute consonants do not exist anymore, since the last spelling reform), opening the vowels to /a, ɛ, ɔ/. E.g. abstenção /abʃtẽˈsɐ̃w̃/, objeto [objecto] /ɔbˈʒɛtu/, direção [direcção] /diɾɛˈsɐ̃w̃/, internet /ĩtɛɾˈnɛt/. However, notice setembro is pronounced /sɨˈtẽbɾu/, despite it would possible be spelled before septembro. These exceptions apply to unchanged words before the 20th century spelling reforms because such etymological lost mute consonants would not be noticed as they once existed. The Lisbon variety (LEP, excluding Setúbal), has merged /e/ to [ɐ] before palatal consonants; e.g. "brasileiro" [bɾɐziˈlɐjru], "coelho" [kuˈɐʎu ~ kuˈɐʲʎu], "sexta-feira" [ˌsɐʃtɐ.ˈfɐjrɐ ~ ˌsɐʲʃtɐ.ˈfɐjrɐ].[14]
- Brazilian Portuguese (BP): /ɐ – a, e – ɛ, o – ɔ/ are raised to /a, e, o/ in middle unstressed syllables (/a, ɛ, ɔ/ in Northeastern varieties), and to /ɐ, i, u/ in final unstressed syllables (however, some varieties, like Carioca Portuguese raise to /a, i, u/ in middle unstressed syllables, when in European Portuguese /ɐ, ɨ, u/ are permissible). When words with double-consonant sequences where the first consonant is not mute, the vowels are opened to /aC(ⁱ), ɛC(ⁱ), ɔC(ⁱ)/ in stressed syllables, raised to /aC(ⁱ), ɛC ~ eCⁱ, ɔC ~ oCⁱ/ in unstressed syllables. E.g. abstenção /abstẽˈsɐ̃w̃ ~ abⁱstẽˈsɐ̃w̃/, objeto /ɔbˈʒɛtu ~ obⁱˈʒɛtu/, internet /ĩteɾˈnɛtᶴ ~ ĩteɾˈnɛtʃi/.
- Angolan Portuguese (AP): /e – ɛ, o – ɔ/ are raised to /e, o/ (/ɨ, u/ being also a possible allophone, according to European Portuguese rules) in middle unstressed syllables, and raised to /ɨ, u/ in final unstressed syllables. In Angolan Portuguese, unlike European Portuguese and Brazilian varieties; /a, ɐ/ merge in complementary distribution to /a/ (even /ɐ̃/ becomes more open /ã/), and /ɐ/ only appears as an allophone in unstressed last syllables. When words with double-consonant sequences where the first consonant is not mute, the vowels are opened to /aC, ɛC, ɔC/. E.g. abstenção /abʃtẽˈsãw̃/, objeto /ɔbˈʒɛtu/, internet /ĩteɾˈnɛt/.[15]
Palatalization
Palatalization of voiceless stops—the consonants [k] and [t] assimilated with the high vowels [e] and [i], and with the semivowel [j].
- centum [ˈkentũː] > [ˈtjɛnto] > cento [ˈt͡sento] > [ˈt͡sẽto] > [ˈs̻ẽto] > [ˈsẽtu] (hundred)
- centum [ˈkentũː] > [ˈtjɛnto] > cento [ˈt͡sɛnto] > [ˈt͡sẽto] > cem [ˈt͡sẽj̃] > [ˈs̻ẽj̃] > [ˈsẽj̃] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [ˈsɐ̃j̃] (LEP) (hundred)
- facere [ˈfakere] > [ˈfatjere] > facer [faˈt͡ser] > fazer [fɐˈd͡zer] > [fɐˈz̻er] > [fɐˈzeɾ] (EP) ~ [faˈzeɾ] (BP, AP)
A more ancient evolution was
- fortiam [ˈfortiãː] > [ˈfortja] > [ˈfort͡sja] > força [ˈfort͡sɐ] > [ˈfors̻ɐ] > [ˈfoɾsɐ] (strength)
Palatalization of liquids and nasals—the consonants [l] and [n] assimilated with the semivowel [j], producing the palatals lh [ʎ] and nh [ɲ]:
- mulierem ['mulierẽː] > mulher [mu'ʎɛr] > [mu'ʎɛɾ] (woman)
- iūnium ['juːniũː] > junho ['ʒuɲo] > ['ʒuɲu] (EP) ~ ['ʒũj̃u] (BP, AP) (June)
Voicing
- mūtum [ˈmuːtũː] > mudo [ˈmudo] > [ˈmudu] (mute)
- lacum [ˈɫakũː] > lago [ˈlago] > [ˈlagu] (lake)
- locustam [ɫɔˈkustãː] > lagosta [lɐˈgos̺tɐ] > [lɐˈgoʃtɐ] (EP) ~ [laˈgostɐ] (BP) [laˈgoʃtɐ] ~ (AP) (lobster)
Lenition
Lenition—consonant clusters, especially long (geminate) consonants, were simplified:
- guttam [ˈgutːãː] > gota [ˈgotɐ] (drop)
- quattuor [ˈkʷatːuɔr] > quatro [ˈkʷatɾo] > [ˈkʷatɾu] (four)
- peccāre [pɛkˈkaːrɛ] > pecar [peˈkar] > [pɨˈkaɾ] (EP) ~ [peˈkaɾ] (BP, AP) (to sin)
Phoneme /b/ evolved as [v]. The /v/ phoneme was generally derived either (1) from an allophone of Latin /b/ between vowels or (2) from the Latin phoneme corresponding to the letter ⟨v⟩ (pronounced [w] in Classical Latin, but later
- habēre [haˈbeːrɛ] > haver [aˈver] > [ɐˈveɾ] (EP) ~ [aˈveɾ] (BP, AP)
- fabam [ˈfabãː] > fava [ˈfavɐ] (broad bean)
- amābam [aˈmaːbãː], amābat [aˈmaːbat] > amava [ɐˈmavɐ] (EP) ~ [aˈmavɐ] (BP, AP)
- lībrum [ˈliːbrũː] > livro [ˈlivɾo] > [ˈlivɾu]
- parabolam [paˈrabɔɫãː] > palavra [pɐˈlavɾɐ] (EP) ~ [paˈlavɾɐ] (BP, AP)
Elision
Elision—the consonants [l] and [n] of Vulgar Latin were deleted between vowels, after which sometimes the vowels around them coalesced, or an epenthetic semivowel was introduced between them. Original geminates [ll], [nn] persisted, later becoming single [l], [n].
- dolōrem [dɔˈɫoːrẽː] > door [doˈor] > dor [ˈdor] > [ˈdoɾ] (pain); (L) doloroso (painful)
- bonum [ˈbɔnũː] > bõo [ˈbõo] > bom [ˈbõ] (good)
- ānellum [aːˈnɛɫːũː] > ãelo [ɐ̃ˈɛlo] > elo [ˈɛlo] > [ˈɛlu] (bond); (L) anel [ɐˈnɛl] (EP) ~ [aˈnɛw] (BP) ~ [aˈnɛl] (AP) (ring)
- salīre [saˈliːrɛ] > sair [sɐˈir] > [sɐˈiɾ] (EP) ~ [saˈiɾ] (BP, AP) (to get out)
- cōlāre [koːˈɫaːrɛ] > coar [koˈar] > [kuˈaɾ] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [koˈaɾ] (BP, AP) (sift)
- notulam [ˈnɔtuɫãː] > nódoa [ˈnɔdoɐ] > [ˈnɔduɐ] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [ˈnɔdoɐ] (BP, AP) (stain)
- catēnam [kaˈteːnãː]> cadeia [kɐˈdejɐ] (EP) ~ [kɐˈdɐjɐ] (LEP) ~ [kaˈdejɐ] (BP, AP) ~ [kaˈdeɐ] (BP, AP) (jail, chain); (L) cadena [kɐˈdenɐ] (EP) ~ [kaˈdẽnɐ] (BP) ~ [kaˈdenɐ] (AP, BP) (jail, chain) (more erudite)
Nasalization
In medieval
This change produced one of the most striking phonological differences between Portuguese and Spanish. The history of nasal vowels in hiatus with a previous or following vowel is complex, depending on the identity of the two vowels and the position of the stress.
1. If the vowels were near each other, they collapsed into a single vowel (nasal or oral, according to the nasality of the stressed vowel):
- bonum ['bonũː] > bõo ['bõo] > bom ['bõ] (good)
- calentem [ka'lentẽː] > caẽte [kɐ'ẽte] > quente ['kẽte] > ['kẽtɨ] (EP, AP) ~ ['kẽtᶴi] (BP) (hot)
- ganātum [ga'naːtũː] > gãado [gɐ̃'ado] > gado ['gado] > ['gadu] (cattle)
- lānam ['laːnãː] > lãa ['lɐ̃ɐ] > lã ['lɐ̃] (EP, BP) ~ ['lã] (AP) (wool)
2. Otherwise, if the second vowel was more closed, the result was usually a nasal diphthong:
- manum ['manũː] > mão ['mɐ̃o] ['mɐ̃w̃] ~ (EP, BP) ['mɐ̃w̃] (AP) (hand)
- canēs ['kaneːs] > cães ['kɐ̃es̺] > ['kãj̃s̺] > ['kɐ̃j̃ʃ] (EP) ~ ['kɐ̃j̃s] (BP) ~ ['kãj̃ʃ] (AP) (dogs)
3. If the second vowel was more open, or as open, nasalization was lost:
- lūnam ['lunãː] > lũa ['lũɐ] > lua ['luɐ] (moon). Exception: ūnam ['unãː] > ũa ['ũɐ] > uma ['umɐ] (EP, AP, BP) ~ ['ũmɐ] (BP) (one). In parts of northern Portugal, however, it is still pronounced ['ũɐ], but now spelled uma.
- bonam ['bonãː] > bõa ['bõɐ] > boa ['boɐ] (good fem.)
- plēnum ['pleːnũː] > chẽo ['t͡ʃẽo] > cheio ['t͡ʃejo] > ['ʃejo] > ['ʃeju] (EP, BP, AP) ~ ['ʃeu] (EP, BP, AP) ~ ['ʃɐju] (LEP) (full); (L) pleno (full)
4. If the first vowel was [i], however, nasalization evolved to a
- vīnum ['viːnũː] > vĩo ['vĩo] > vinho ['viɲo] > ['viɲu] (EP, BP) ~ ['vĩj̃u] (BP, AP) (wine)
- rēgīnam ['regiːnãː] > *ragina [rɐ'd͡ʒinɐ ~ rɐ'ʒinɐ] > raĩa [rɐ'ĩɐ] > rainha [ʁɐ'iɲɐ] (EP) ~ [ʁa'iɲɐ] (BP) ~ [ʁa'ĩj̃ɐ] (BP, AP) (queen)
Progressive nasalization—The spread of nasalization forward from a nasal consonant, especially [m].
- mātrem ['maːtrẽː] > made ['made] > mai ['maj] > mãe ['mɐ̃j̃] (EP, BP) ~ ['mãj̃] (AP) (mother)
- meam ['meãː] > mia ['miɐ] > mĩa ['mĩɐ] > minha ['miɲɐ] (EP, BP) ~ ['mĩj̃ɐ] (BP, AP) (my fem.); but compare meum ['meũː] > meu ['mew] (my masc.)
- ad noctem [ad 'noktẽː] > anoite [a'noite] > ãote [ɐ̃'ote] > ontem [ˈõtẽj̃] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [ˈõtɐ̃j̃] (LEP) (yesterday).
Epenthesis
Epenthesis—the insertion of a sound to break up a sequence of vowels:
- harēnam [ha'reːnãː] > arẽa [ɐ'ɾẽɐ] > areia [ɐ'ɾejɐ] (EP) ~ [ɐ'ɾɐjɐ] (LEP) ~ [a'ɾejɐ] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [a'ɾeɐ] (EP, BP, AP) (sand); (L) arena (arena)
- gallīnam [ga'lːiːnãː] > galĩa [gɐ'lĩɐ] > galinha [gɐ'liɲɐ] (EP) ~ [ga'liɲɐ] (BP) ~ [ga'lĩj̃ɐ] (BP, AP) (chicken)
- vīnum ['viːnũː] > vĩo ['vĩo] > vinho ['viɲo] > ['viɲu] (EP, BP) ~ ['vĩj̃u] (BP, AP) (wine)
Examples such as the former two have been used by some authors to argue that the digraph nh was a nasal approximant in medieval Portuguese, and thus its pronunciation [j̃] in most dialects of Brazil and São Tomé and Príncipe is the original one.[17]
Dissimilation
Dissimilation—Modification of a sound by the influence of neighboring sounds; similar became different over time.
1. Between vowels:
- locustam [lo'kustãː] > lagosta [lɐ'gos̺tɐ] > [lɐ'goʃtɐ] (EP) ~ [la'gostɐ] (BP) ~ [la'goʃtɐ] (AP) (lobster)
- campanam ['kampanãː] > campãa ['kɐ̃mpɐ̃ɐ ~ 'kɐ̃pɐ̃a] > campa [kɐ̃pɐ] (EP, BP) ~ [kãpɐ] (AP) (tomb)
2. Between consonants:
- memorāre [memo'raːre] > nembrar [nem'bɾar ~ nẽ'bɾar] > lembrar [lẽ'bɾar] > [lẽ'bɾaɾ] (to remember); (L) memorizar [memoɾizar] > [mɨmuɾizaɾ] (EP) ~ [memoɾizaɾ] (BP, AP) (to memorize)
- animam ['animãː] > alma ['aɫmɐ] (EP, AP) ~ ['awmɐ] (BP) (soul); (L) animado (animated)
- locālem [lo'kaːlẽː] > logar [lo'gar] > lugar [lu'gar] > [lu'gaɾ]; (L) local [lo'kal] > [lu'kaɫ] (EP) ~ [lo'kaw] (BP) ~ [lo'kaw] (AP) (place)
Metathesis
Metathesis—a sound change that alters the order of phonemes in a word. Semi-vowel metathesis:
- prīmārium [priː'maːriũː] > primeiro [pɾi'mejɾo] > [pɾi'mejɾu] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [pɾi'meɾu] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [pɾi'mɐjɾu] (LEP) (first); (L) primário [pɾi'maɾio] > [pɾi'maɾiu] (primary)
Consonant metathesis in [l] and [ɾ]:
- tenebrās ['tenebraːs] > tẽevras ['tẽevɾɐs̺] > trevas ['tɾɛvas̺] > ['tɾɛvɐʃ] (EP, AP) ~ ['tɾɛvɐs] (BP) (darkness); this was rare in Portuguese; (L) tenebroso [tene'bɾozo] > [tɨnɨ'bɾozu] (EP) ~ [tene'bɾozu] (BP, AP) (dark)
Vowel metathesis:
- genuculum [ge'nukulũː] > *genoclo [d͡ʒe'noklo] ~ [ʒe'noklo] > gẽolho [d͡ʒẽ'oʎo] ~ [ʒẽ'oʎo] > joelho [ʒo'eʎo] > [ʒu'eʎu] (EP, BP, AP) ~ [ʒo'eʎu] (BP, AP) ~ [ʒu'ɐʎu] (LEP) (knee)
Medieval sound changes
This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2017) |
Everywhere except in the above-mentioned parts of Trás-os-Montes, the lamino-alveolar and apico-alveolar fricatives merged. (This appears to have happened no earlier than the seventeenth century, on the evidence of the spelling system used by
Old Portuguese | Modern Portuguese | ||
---|---|---|---|
Orthography | Pronunciation | Orthography | Pronunciation |
⟨j⟩ or soft ⟨g⟩ | /dʒ/ → /ʒ/ | ⟨g⟩ before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩; ⟨j⟩ elsewhere | /ʒ/ |
⟨g⟩ before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩; ⟨j⟩ elsewhere | /ʒ/ | ||
⟨z⟩ | /d͡z̪/ → /z̪/ | ⟨z⟩ | /z̪/ |
intervocalic ⟨s⟩ | /z̺/ | intervocalic ⟨s⟩ | |
⟨ch⟩ | /t͡ʃ/ | ⟨ch⟩ | /ʃ/ |
⟨x⟩ | /ʃ/ | ⟨x⟩ | |
⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩; ⟨ç⟩ before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩ | /t͡s̪/ | ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩; ⟨ç⟩ or ⟨s⟩ before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩ | /s̪/ |
⟨s⟩ in syllable onset or coda; ⟨ss⟩ between vowels | /s̺/ | ⟨s⟩ in syllable onset or coda; ⟨ss⟩ between vowels |
It appears that the sound written ⟨v⟩ was at one point during the medieval period pronounced as a voiced bilabial fricative [β]. Subsequently, it either changed into a labiodental fricative [v] (as in central and southern Portugal, and hence in Brazil), or merged into /b/ (as in northern Portugal and Galicia, similarly to modern Spanish). Also similarly to modern Spanish, the voiced stops /b d ɡ/ eventually became pronounced as fricatives [β ð ɣ] between vowels and after consonants, other than in the clusters /nd/ /ld/ /nɡ/ /mb/ (the nasals were presumably still pronounced in these clusters, rather than simply reflected as a nasal vowel). However, this change happened after the colonization of Brazil, and never affected Brazilian Portuguese.
Final unstressed /a/ was subsequently raised to /ɐ/. Final /o/ was eventually raised to /u/ in both Portugal and Brazil, but independently. Final unstressed /e/ was likewise raised to /i/ in Brazil, but shifted to /ɨ/ in Portugal. In parts of Portugal (but not in Brazil), these changes have come to affect almost all unstressed instances of /a/ /o/ /e/; but not /ou/ (which now appears as /o/ in some parts of the country), nor the former sequences /aa/ /ee/ /oo/ (which now appear as /a/ /ɛ/ /ɔ/ respectively), nor in syllables closed by stop consonants (e.g. in secção "section", optar "to choose"). Hence in Portugal pesar "to weigh" /pɨˈzaɾ/ but pregar "to preach" /prɛˈɡaɾ/ (former preegar < praedicāre); morar "to live" /muˈɾaɾ/, but corado "blushing" /kɔˈɾadu/ (former coorado < colōrātum), roubar "to rob" /ʁoˈbaɾ/. (In Brazil these appear as /peˈzaɾ/, /preˈɡaɾ/, /moˈɾaɾ/, /koˈɾadu/, /hoˈbaɾ/.) Recently in Rio de Janeiro (and rapidly spreading to other parts of Brazil), /t/ and /d/ have been affricated to /tᶴ/ and /dᶾ/ before /i/, including /i/ from unstressed /e/.
Old Portuguese had a large number of occurrences of hiatus (two vowels next to each other with no consonant in between), as a result of the loss of Latin /l n d ɡ/ between vowels. In the transition to modern Portuguese, these were resolved in a complex but largely regular fashion, either remaining, compressing into a single vowel, turning into a diphthong, or gaining an epenthetic consonant such as /v/ or /ɲ/; see above.
Portuguese traditionally had two alveolar rhotic consonants: a flap /ɾ/ and trill /r/, as in Spanish. In many areas of Portugal the trill /r/ has passed into a uvular fricative /ʁ/. In most parts of Brazil, however, /r/ has become an unvoiced fricative /x/ (variously [x χ h]), and all instances of /ɾ/ not preceding a vowel have been likewise affected. (When final, this sound is sometimes not pronounced at all.)
/l/ at the end of a syllable became heavily
See also
- Differences between Spanish and Portuguese
- Galician language
- History of Galicia
- History of Portugal
- History of Brazil
- List of English words of Portuguese origin
- Portuguese vocabulary
- Romance languages
- Spelling reforms of Portuguese
- Museum of the Portuguese Language
- Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990
References
- ^ Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC) (Map). Campo Arqueológico de Tavira. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008.
- ^ Portuguese vocabulary
- ISBN 9788861348400.
- ^ Translation: Of those I see / I desire / no other lady but you; / and a desire / so dire, / could kill a lion, / lady of my heart: / fine little rose, / prettiest over all the flowers / fine little rose, / may your love / not put me / in such a disgrace.
- ^ Posner, Rebecca. "Portuguese Language". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- S2CID 143721538.
- ISBN 978-0-19-159050-4.
- ^ "Grammatica da lingoagem Portuguesa de Fernão de Oliveira" [Descriptive grammar of the Portuguese language of Fernão de Oliveira]. Tesouros impressos da Biblioteca Nacional (in Portuguese).
- ^ ISBN 0-521-80515-5.
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