History of the Royal Australian Navy
The history of the Royal Australian Navy traces the development of the
The Royal Australian Navy has seen action in every ocean of the world.[2][3] It first saw action in World War I, in the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans. Between the wars the RAN's fortunes shifted with the financial situation of Australia: it experienced great growth during the 1920s, but was forced to reduce its fleet and operations during the 1930s. Consequently, when it entered World War II, the RAN was smaller than it had been at the start of World War I. During the course of World War II, the RAN operated more than 350 fighting and support ships; a further 600 small civilian vessels were put into service as auxiliary patrol boats.[4] (Contrary to some claims, however, the RAN was not the fifth-largest navy in the world at any point during World War II.[5])
Following World War II, the RAN saw action in
Australia Station
In the years following the establishment of the British colony of New South Wales in 1788, Royal Navy ships of the East Indies Squadron under the command of the East Indies Station would be station in or visit Australian waters. From the 1820s, a ship was sent annually to New South Wales, and occasionally to New Zealand.[6]
In 1848, an Australian Division of the East Indies Station was established,[7] and in 1859 the British Admiralty established an independent command, the Australia Station, under the command of a Commodore who was assigned as Commander-in-Chief, Australia Station.[8] The Australian Squadron was created to which British naval ships serving on the Australia Station were assigned.[8][9] The changes were partially in recognition of the fact that a large part of the East Indies Station had been detached to Australian waters, and also reflecting growing concern for the strategic situation in the western Pacific in general, and in Tahiti and New Zealand in particular.[8] In 1884, the commander of the Australia Station was upgraded to the rank of rear admiral.[8]
At its establishment, the Australia Station encompassed Australia and New Zealand, with its eastern boundary including Samoa and Tonga, its western edge in the Indian Ocean, south of India and its southern edge defined by the Antarctic Circle. The boundaries were modified in 1864, 1872 and 1893.[10] At its largest, the Australia Station reached from the Equator to the Antarctic in its greatest north–south axis, and covered 1⁄4 of the Southern Hemisphere in its extreme east–west dimension, including Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, Melanesia and Polynesia.[11]
In 1911 the Australia Station passed to the Commonwealth Naval Forces (initially under the command of RN officers) and the Australian Squadron was disbanded. The Station, now under nominal Australian command, was reduced to only cover Australia and its island dependencies to the north and east. In 1911, the Commonwealth Naval Forces was renamed the Royal Australian Navy, which in 1913 came under Australian command. The Royal Navy's Australia Station's Sydney based depots, dockyards and structures were gifted to the Commonwealth of Australia. The Royal Navy continued to support the RAN and provided additional blue-water defence capability in the Pacific up to the early years of World War II.
Before the
On 1 January 1901, Australia became a federation of six States, as the
Formation
A growing number of people, among them Captain
The first Australian warship, the destroyer HMAS Parramatta, was launched at Govan in Scotland on Wednesday 9 February 1910. Sister ship HMAS Yarra was launched at Dumbarton in Scotland on Saturday 9 April 1910. Both ships were commissioned into the Royal Navy on 19 September 1910 and sailed for Australia, arriving at Port Phillip on 10 December 1910. The event was marred by the death of Engineer Lieutenant W. Robertson, RN, who suffered a heart attack 8 miles (13 km) outside Port Phillip Heads whilst onboard HMAS Yarra, and drowned.[14]
The British Australia Station passed to the Commonwealth Naval Forces in 1911 and the Australian Squadron was disbanded. On 10 July 1911,
At the 1911 Imperial Conference Australia expressed concern about Japan's growing naval power and it was agreed that the British government would consult Australia when negotiating renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.[16] It was also decided that the Royal Navy would continue to support the RAN and provide blue-water defence capability in the Pacific and that if there was war the ships of the RAN would be transferred to British Admiralty control. Under the Naval Defence Act (1912) the power to make the transfer was conferred in the Governor-General. The RAN would become the Australia Squadron of the Royal Navy with all ships and personnel under the direct control of the British Admiralty, while the RAN remained responsible for the upkeep of the ships and training.
In 1913, responsibility for the reduced Australia Station passed to the new Royal Australian Navy
The Royal Navy continued to support the RAN and provide blue-water defence capability in the Pacific up to the early years of World War II. In 1958, the boundaries of Australia Station was redrawn again, now to include Papua New Guinea.[8]
World War I
On 3 August 1914, as the prospect of war with the German Empire loomed, the Australian Government sent the following message to the Admiralty.[18]
In the event of war Government prepared place vessels of Australian Navy under control British Admiralty when desired.
The United Kingdom declared war on Germany the next day, and on 8 August, the Australian Government received a reply, requesting that the transfer be made immediately, if not already done. Two days later, on 10 August, the Governor-General officially transferred control of the Royal Australian Navy to the British Admiralty, which would retain control until 19 August 1919.[19]
At the outbreak of war, the RAN stood at 3,800 personnel and consisted of sixteen ships, including the battlecruiser Australia, the light cruisers Sydney and Melbourne, the destroyers Parramatta, Yarra, and Warrego, and the submarines AE1 and AE2. The light cruiser Brisbane and three destroyers were under construction, and a small fleet of auxiliary ships was also being maintained. As a consequence the Royal Australian Navy at the start of the war was a small but formidable force.[20]
Australian ships first saw action in the Asian and Pacific theatre; assisting in the attack on German New Guinea by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF). Germany had colonised the northeastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups in 1884, and the colony was currently used as a wireless radio base, Britain required the wireless installations to be destroyed because they were used by the German East Asia Squadron which threatened merchant shipping in the region. The objectives of the force were the German stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands, Nauru, and Rabaul in New Britain. On 30 August 1914, the AN&MEF left Sydney under the protection of Australia and Melbourne for Port Moresby, where the force met the Queensland contingent, aboard the transport HMAHS Kanowna. The force then sailed for German New Guinea on 7 September, leaving Kanowna behind when her stokers refused to work. Sydney and her escorting destroyers met the AN&MEF off the eastern tip of New Guinea. Melbourne was detached to destroy the wireless station on Nauru, while on 14 September, Encounter bombarded a ridge near Rabaul,[21] while half a battalion advanced towards the town. The only major loss of the campaign was the disappearance of the submarine AE1 during a patrol off Rabaul on 14 September 1914.[22][23]
On 9 November 1914, the German light cruiser
On 6 February 1915, the obsolescent light cruiser
During the
Ships of the Royal Australian Navy also assisted the
The most decorated Australian Naval unit of World War One, however was not a ship at all, but the
Expansion during the war had been limited, with the RAN growing to include thirty-seven ships and more than 5,000 personnel by 1918.[33] The RAN's losses had also been modest, only losing the two submarines AE1 and AE2, whilst casualties included 171 fatalities – 108 Australians and 63 officers and men on loan from the Royal Navy, with less than a third the result of enemy action.[34]
The 1918–19 influenza pandemic
Between April 1918 and May 1919, the Spanish flu killed approximately 25 million people worldwide, far more than had been killed in four years of war. A rigorous quarantine policy was implemented in Australia; although this reduced the immediate impact of the flu, the nation's death toll surpassed 11,500.[35]
When the pandemic struck in 1918, the ships of the Royal Australian Navy were dispersed throughout the world. The speed at which the flu spread, coupled with the cramped mess decks and poorly ventilated living spaces on early 20th century warships, created a favourable environment for the disease. The pandemic swept through the
South Pacific aid mission
The disease arrived in the South Pacific on the cargo vessel SS Talune, which sailed from Auckland on 30 October 1918 whilst knowingly carrying sick passengers. Talune stopped in Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Nauru: the first outbreaks in these locations occurred within days of the ships visits. The local authorities were generally unprepared for the size of the outbreak, allowing the infection to spread uncontrollably. The German territory of Samoa was the worst affected of the small islands, the New Zealand administration carried out no efforts to lessen the outbreak and rejected offers of assistance from nearby American Samoa. The New Zealand government officially apologised to Samoa in 2002 for their reaction to the outbreak.[37] On 29 November 1918 the military governor of Apia requested assistance from Wellington; the request was turned down because all doctors were needed in New Zealand. Australia offered the only alternate source of aid.
The Commonwealth Naval Board was aware of the worsening situation in the region; the sloop
Between the Wars
Following the end of World War I, the Australian Government believed that an immediate evaluation of the RAN was necessary. Australia had based its naval policy on the Henderson Recommendations of 1911, developed by Sir Reginald Henderson. The government sent an invitation to Admiral John Jellicoe, he arrived in Australia in May 1919. Jellicoe remained in Australia for three months, before returning to England via New Zealand and Canada. Jellicoe submitted his findings in August 1919, titled the Report on the Naval Mission to the Commonwealth. The report outlined several policies designed to strengthen British naval strength in the Pacific Ocean. The report heavily stressed a close relationship between the RAN and the Royal Navy. This would be achieved by strict adherence to the procedures and administration methods of the Royal Navy. The report also suggested constant officer exchange between the two forces. Jellicoe also called for the creation of a large Far East Imperial Fleet, which would be based in Singapore and include capital ships and aircraft carriers. The creation cost for this fleet was to be divided between Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand: contributing 75%, 20%, and 5% respectively. The suggested makeup of the RAN would include; one aircraft carrier, two battlecruisers, eight light cruisers, one flotilla leader, twelve destroyers, a destroyer depot ship, eight submarines, one submarine depot ship, and a small number of additional auxiliary ships. The annual cost and depreciation of the fleet was estimated to be £4,024,600. Except for implementing closer ties with the Royal Navy, none of Jellicoe's major recommendations were carried out.[39]
With the end of World War I, the Australian Government began to worry about the threat Japan posed to Australia. Japan had extended its empire 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) to the south, bringing it right to Australia's doorstep. Japan had continued to build up its naval force, and had reached the point where it outgunned the Royal Navy in the Pacific. The RAN and the government believed that the possibility of a Japanese invasion was highly likely. In his report, Admiral Jellicoe believed that the threat of a Japanese invasion of Australia would remain as long as the
In view of the result of attained at the Washington Treaty which, my advisors believe, guarantee peace in the Pacific for some time to come, it is proposed to reduce the establishment of the navy and army, and postpone the expansion of the air force.
Between World War I and
World War II
Australia declared war on Nazi Germany one hour after the United Kingdom's declaration of war on 3 September 1939. Unlike the arrangements with the British Admiralty at the start of the First World War, during World War II RAN ships remained under Australian command.
Ship type | Sept. 1939 |
June 1945 |
---|---|---|
Heavy cruisers
|
2 | 2 |
Light cruisers
|
4 | 2 |
Destroyers
|
5 | 11 |
Frigates
|
0 | 6 |
Sloops | 2 | 2 |
Corvettes
|
0 | 53 |
Landing ship infantry
|
0 | 3 |
Anti-submarine auxiliaries | 0 | 3 |
Auxiliary Minesweepers | 0 | 6 |
Minelayers
|
0 | 1 |
Replenishment oilers | 0 | 1 |
Combat stores ships | 0 | 12 |
Repair ships | 0 | 3 |
Net laying ships | 0 | 10 |
Tugs
|
0(?) | 6 |
Cable repair ships
|
0 | 2 |
Survey ships
|
0(?) | 9 |
Motor Launches | 0 | 33 |
Harbour Defence Motor Launches
|
0 | 28 |
Air Sea Rescue vessels
|
0 | 20 |
Auxiliary patrol boats | 0 | 75 |
Services reconnaissance | 0 | 8 |
Other vessels | 0(?) | 41 |
Total | 13(?) | 337 |
At the onset of war the RAN was relatively modest, even if it was arguably the most combat-ready of the three services. Major units included:[42]
- two County-class heavy cruisers; Australia and Canberra, both carried 8-inch (203 mm) guns and had entered service in the 1920s
- three modern Modified Leander-class light cruisers; Hobart, Perth, and Sydney, which mounted 6-inch (152 mm) guns
- the older Town-class cruiser Adelaide
- four sloops, Parramatta, Swan, Warrego, and Yarra; although only Swan and Yarra were in commission
- five V-class destroyers
- a variety of support and ancillary craft
Following the call up of reserves in 1939 the permanent forces grew from 5,440 to 10,259.[43]
During the war the men and vessels of the RAN served in every theatre of operations, from the tropical Pacific to the frigid Russian convoys and grew exponentially. The table illustrates the growth of the RAN between the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 and 30 June 1945.[44]
Operations against Italy, Vichy France and Germany
From mid-1940, ships of the RAN, at the request of the
The entry of Italy into the war also lead to a far more active role for the few remaining RAN vessels on the Australian Station. Indeed, on 12 June 1940, after a prolonged chase, the Armed Merchant Cruiser (AMC)
On 27 June 1940, Admiral
Also on 27 June 1940, the
On 7 July 1940, a 25-ship fleet departed Alexandria, intending to meet a convoy east of Malta.[51] The next day, a submarine sighted an Italian fleet 500 miles (800 km) away; the Allied fleet altered course to intercept.[52] The two fleets sighted each other at 15.00 on 9 July 1940, and a battle that became known as the Battle of Calabria began.[53] Four vessels of the RAN took part in the battle; HMA Ships Sydney, Stuart, Vampire, and Voyager. Sydney was the first RAN vessel to engage the enemy, and at 15.20 opened fire on an Italian cruiser.[53] When the Italian fleet began to withdraw, the Allied destroyer squadron was ordered forward. Stuart, leading the destroyer force, was the first to open fire; her opening salvo was a direct hit at a range of 12,600 yards (11,500 m). Both fleets retired, with the Italians withdrawing under smoke, but Italian aircraft continued to attack Allied ships.[54] Sydney, which came under heavy air attack, was believed to have sunk.[55] The fleet arrived back in Alexandria on 13 July.[54]
On 17 July 1940, HMAS Sydney and the destroyer
On 30 September 1940, HMAS Stuart destroyed the Italian
On 27 March 1941, an Allied fleet under Admiral Cunningham was ambushed by an Italian naval force off Cape Matapan, Greece.[65] Three vessels of the RAN took part in the battle; HMA Ships Perth, Stuart, and Vampire. The victory at Cape Matapan allowed the evacuation of thousands of Allied troops from Crete.[66]
HMAS Parramatta was torpedoed and sunk on 27 November 1941 by U-559 whilst escorting transports resupplying the Allied garrison at Tobruk. There were 24 survivors, but 138 men, including all officers, lost their lives.[67]
The Australians experienced further success on 15 December 1941 when HMAS Nestor attacked and sank the German submarine U-127 off Cape St. Vincent, Portugal.[68]
West Africa
On 6 September 1940, HMAS Australia was ordered to sail to Freetown, Sierra Leone to join Operation Menace, the invasion of Vichy French-controlled Dakar in French West Africa. On 19 September, Australia and the cruiser HMS Cumberland sighted three Vichy cruisers heading south and shadowed them. When the French cruiser Gloire developed engine trouble, Australia escorted her towards Casablanca and returned to the fleet two days later. On 23 September Australia came under heavy fire from shore batteries, then drove two Vichy destroyers back into port. Australia then engaged and sunk the destroyer L'Audacieux with eight salvos in sixteen minutes. Over the next two days French and Allied forces exchanged fire; Australia was struck twice and lost her Walrus amphibian. Australia and the rest of the fleet retired on 25 September the battle became known as the Battle of Dakar.[69][70]
The "Scrap-Iron Flotilla"
The
The Australian destroyer flotilla took part in multiple actions while in the Mediterranean, including the
Of the five destroyers, three were lost during the war; Waterhen was sunk in the Mediterranean on 30 June 1941, Vampire was sunk by Japanese aircraft during the
Red Sea
As well as serving in the
Loss of HMAS Sydney
On 19 November 1941, the Australian light cruiser
North Africa
RAN units continued to serve in the Mediterranean campaign, with HMAS Quiberon, taking part in Operation Torch, the invasion of North Africa. On 28 November 1942 Quiberon assisted in sinking the Italian submarine Dessiè and three days later also took part in the destruction of a four-ship convoy and a destroyer.[75]
Sicily 1943
During early 1943, eight Australian-designed and built Bathurst-class corvettes were transferred to Egypt from the Indian Ocean, in preparation for Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily.[76] They were part of a 3,000-ship Allied force. The corvettes arrived in the Mediterranean in May and were formed into the 21st and 22nd Minesweeping Flotillas. All eight ships survived the campaign without damage or casualties sustained in action, although HMAS Maryborough experienced a near-miss from a German bomber. When the captain of HMAS Gawler enquired what damage had been sustained, the response from Maryborough read: "no damage except to my underpants".[76]
War with Japan
After the Imperial Japanese Navy's attacks on the Allies in December 1941, the RAN redeployed its larger ships to home waters to protect the Australian mainland from Japanese attack, while several smaller ships remained in the Mediterranean. From 1940 onwards, there was considerable Axis naval activity in Australian waters first from German commerce raiders and submarines and later by the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Initially, RAN ships served as part of the British-Australian component of the
Timor
From February 1942, the RAN played a critical role in resupplying
Java Sea
On 28 February 1942, a joint ABDA naval force met a Japanese invasion force in the Java Sea. The Leander-class cruiser HMAS Perth and the American heavy cruiser USS Houston fought in and survived the Battle of the Java Sea.
On 1 March 1942, the Perth and Houston attempted to move through the Sunda Strait to
Coral Sea
On 2 May 1942, two ships of the RAN were part of the Allied force in the Battle of the Coral Sea; HMA Ships Australia and Hobart as part of Task Force 44. Both ships came under intense air attack, while part of a force guarding the approaches to Port Moresby.[79]
The defence of Australian shipping
In late May and early June 1942, a group of five
The attack on Sydney and Newcastle marked the start of a sustained Japanese submarine campaign against Australia. During 1942, Japanese submarines sank 17 ships in Australian waters, although none of these ships were sailing as part of a convoy.[82] 16 ships were sunk in Australian waters during 1943, before the Japanese ended the campaign in July. Five of these ships were sunk while sailing in escorted convoys.[83] The Australian naval authorities gradually dismantled the coastal convoy system between December 1943 and March 1944.[84] By the end of the war, the RAAF and RAN had escorted over 1,100 convoys along the Australian coastline.[4]
While the scale of the Japanese naval offensive directed against Australia was small compared to other naval campaigns of the war such as the Battle of the Atlantic, these attacks were "the most comprehensive and widespread series of offensive operations ever conducted by an enemy against Australia".[85] Although the RAN only sank a single full-sized Japanese submarine in Australian waters (I-124 in January 1942) convoy escorts may have successfully reduced the threat to shipping in Australian waters by making it harder for Japanese submarines to carry out attacks.[86]
Whilst escorting convoys between Australia and New Guinea,
Loss of HMAS Canberra
The loss of HMAS Canberra at the Battle of Savo Island in August 1942 was the largest single ship loss the RAN experienced during World War II. In the early hours of the morning of 9 August 1942, Canberra was severely damaged off Guadalcanal in a surprise attack by a powerful Japanese naval force. Canberra was hit by 24 shells in less than two minutes, with 84 of her crew killed, including Captain Frank Getting. Following an order to abandon ship, Canberra was sunk the next day by a torpedo from a US destroyer, to prevent it being captured.
The loss of Canberra, following the losses of Sydney and Perth, attracted unprecedented international attention and sympathy for the RAN. US President
Leyte Gulf and Lingayen Gulf
Between 23 and 25 October 1944 four RAN warships – HMA Ships Australia, Shropshire,
Shropshire and Arunta remained at Leyte and were part of the
HMAS Australia returned to combat at the Battle of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945. During the battle Australia was repeatedly attacked between 5–9 January, suffering significant damage which forced it to retire once more.[91]
Ships with British fleets 1942–45
In 1940–42, five
. These ships were predominantly crewed by RAN personnel, although they were often commanded by British officers and remained the property of the British government.Following the
On 11 February 1944 the corvettes HMA Ships Ipswich and Launceston, in conjunction with the Indian sloop Jumna, sank the Japanese submarine
From late 1944, Nepal, Norman and Quiberon were transferred, along with many other Eastern Fleet ships, to the new British Pacific Fleet (BPF). Among other operations with the BPF, they took part in the Battle of Okinawa.
In late 1945, following the end of hostilities, the RAN acquired three more Q-class destroyers:
The End of the War 1945
By the end of World War II, the RAN's combat strength numbered 150 ships with an additional 200 auxiliary craft with the service reaching its peak in June 1945, when it ranks swelled to 39,650 personnel.[4] During the six years of war, the RAN lost three cruisers, four destroyers, two sloops, a corvette, and an auxiliary minesweeper to enemy action.[68] Casualties included 1,740 personnel from the 19 ships sunk, and another 436 personnel killed aboard other ships or at other posts.[4] By most measures, such losses were heavy for such a small service, representing over half its pre-war strength in ships and one-fifth in men. Against this the RAN destroyed one cruiser, an armed merchant raider, three destroyers or torpedo boats, a minesweeper, many light craft and seven submarines. It also destroyed or captured more than 150,000 tons of Axis merchant shipping and shot down more than a hundred aircraft. Although difficult to quantify the RAN also played a role in numerous other successes.[68]
Surrender and occupation of Japan
Ten RAN vessels were present at the
The RAN also played a role in the disarmament of Japan, assisting in the scuttling of former
Clearing mines from Australian and New Guinean waters was another focus for the RAN in
Cold War
Following World War II, the RAN reduced its surface fleet but continued to expand in other ways, acquiring two Royal Navy
When it was decided that the RAN should commission a destroyer armed with guided missiles, the obvious British design was the
By the mid-late 1960s, the RAN was at the zenith of its operational capabilities; it was capable of dispatching a full carrier battle group in support of major operations by having in service an aircraft carrier (HMAS Melbourne), three large area defence destroyers of the Perth class, six modern River-class frigates and four Oberon-class submarines.
With the retreat of British forces west of the
Korea
On 27 June 1950, the
The destroyer
Over the course of the Korean War, nine ships of the RAN participated in the naval blockade of North Korea.[97]
Malaya
The
The first ships of the RAN to arrive in the area were the
Indonesia
In response to the Indonesian invasion of
On 13 December 1964, the minesweeper
When Indonesian forces crossed the border into Sebatik Island, Sabah on 28 June 1965, HMAS Yarra was called on to carry out bombardments disrupting the withdrawal of the Indonesians. Yarra carried out two more bombardments of the border area on 5 and 10 July. During three runs, Yarra fired a total of 70 rounds on the enemy. On 13 August 1966, an agreement between Indonesia and Malaysia brought an end to the conflict.
Melbourne-Voyager collision
During the night of 10 February 1964, the worst peacetime disaster in the RAN's history occurred when the destroyer
Following the collision Prime Minister
Vietnam War
Ships of the Royal Australian Navy were stationed on continuous operational service in Vietnam between 1965 and 1972; a total 18 ships served in Vietnam waters during the war. During this period, the navy performed a wide variety of operational tasks at sea, ashore, and in the air. The RAN's primary contribution consisted of destroyers,
The RAN did not deploy operationally until 1965, but in 1962
The aircraft carrier
In 1969, the aircraft carrier
In April 1971, Prime Minister John Gorton announced that Australian forces in Vietnam would be reduced. This led to the withdrawal of the clearance divers in May and the Fleet Air Arm in June. The final RAN destroyer on the gunline, Brisbane, returned to Sydney on 15 October 1971. The Whitlam government withdrew all Australian forces from and stopped military aid to South Vietnam. HMAS Jeparit returned to Sydney on 11 March 1972 and was followed the next day by HMAS Sydney. During the 10 years that the RAN was involved in the war, eight officers and sailors were killed, and another 46 were either wounded or suffered other injuries.[112][117]
Cyclone Tracy
During the morning of 25 December 1974,
When Tracy struck Darwin, the RAN had a total of 351 personnel based in the city, along with four Attack-class patrol boat; the small number of men limited the capability of the RAN to render immediate assistance to the citizens of Darwin.[120] All four patrol boats were damaged in some way: Advance and Assail were able to weather the cyclone with minor damage, but Attack was forced aground, and Arrow sank after colliding with Stokes Hill Wharf, killing two personnel.[119] Land-based naval installations were also heavily damaged by the cyclone, Darwin Naval Headquarters was destroyed, as were large sections of the patrol boat base and the married quarters. The oil fuel supply installation and naval communications station at HMAS Coonawarra were also damaged. The initial RAN relief which was limited to search and rescue in the area of Darwin Harbour and Melville Island, which was hindered by the lack of reliable communications.[119]
As the severity of the disaster was realised, a naval task force was established to render aid to the people of Darwin;
The first vessels, HMA Ships Brisbane and Flinders, arrived in Darwin on 31 December. Flinders surveyed the approaches to Darwin, ensuring the safety of the taskforce, while Brisbane landed working parties and established communications. The entire 13-ship task force had arrived in Darwin by 13 January 1975, bringing over 3,000 personnel.[119] RAN personnel was primarily assigned to clear the suburbs of Nightcliff, Rapid Creek, Northern Territory, and Casuarina, while aircraft and helicopters were used to move evacuees and supplies, and CDT1 inspected ships in the harbour for damage and cleared several wharves.[119] Vessels of the task force began to depart Darwin as early as 7 January, with HMA Ships Brisbane and Stalwart the last to depart on 31 January, after command of the relief operation was turned over to the Commandant of the Army's 7th Military District.[119]
Pacific patrol boat program
Following the introduction of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of many coastal nations was increased from 12 to 200 Nmi. The sudden expansion of responsibility dramatically increased the area of ocean requiring surveillance, monitoring and policing by these nations, increasing the strain on existing maritime patrol resources, and highlighting the need for countries without a maritime patrol force to obtain one, especially in the South West Pacific area.[121]
In 1979, the Australian and New Zealand Governments, at the request of Pacific Island nations, sent defence representatives into the South-West Pacific region to assess surveillance and maritime patrol requirements. The governments of a number of the Pacific nations expressed their concern about the need for a suitable naval patrol force to meet their new surveillance requirements. The Australian government responded by creating the Defence Cooperation Project (DCP), to provide suitable patrol vessels, training and infrastructure to island nations in the region. The Pacific Patrol Boat Systems Program Office was created within the Minor War Vessels Branch of the RAN procurement organisation.[121]
The tender for the vessels was released in August 1984, and was awarded to Australian Shipbuilding Industries Pty Ltd (now Tenix Western Australia) in September 1985. The first of ten vessels was to be delivered in early 1987. The first vessel, HMPNGS Tarangau, was officially handed over to the Papua New Guinea Defence Force on 16 May 1987. Over the course of the project the number of participating countries increased. By the end of the construction phase of the project, a total of 22 boats had been delivered to 12 countries, compared to the original order of 10 boats for 8 countries. In total, the project cost for 22 vessels and associated support was A$155.25 million.[121]
The RAN never operated the
Two-Ocean Policy
The main role of the Royal Australian Navy in the two decades following the end of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War was supporting Australian diplomatic initiatives. In line with this goal the RAN exercised with the navies of Australia's allies and provided support to civil authorities in Australia and the South Pacific.[122] The RAN's main military concern from the 1970s was the activities of the Soviet Navy in the Indian Ocean. In 1971 the Marxist government of South Yemen permitted the Soviet Navy to use the former British naval base at Aden, thus allowing the Soviet Navy to maintain a squadron in the Indian Ocean.[123] These concerns lead to increased co-operation with the United States Navy and the development of the RAN's main base in Western Australia, HMAS Stirling.[124]
During the late 1970s, the RAN replaced many of its ageing ships with modern equivalents. While it planned to purchase the British aircraft carrier HMS Invincible to replace Melbourne, Britain's offer of the carrier was withdrawn after the Falklands War. As a result, Melbourne was decommissioned without replacement in 1982 and the Fleet Air Arm retired almost all of its fixed wing aircraft on 30 June 1983.[125]
In 1987, the Hawke Government's Defence White Paper called for the RAN to become a more self-reliant two-ocean navy with major fleet bases in New South Wales and Western Australia. The plan called for the expansion of Stirling on Garden Island and Jervis Bay to accommodate an expanded RAN combat surface and submarine fleets. The plan originally called for the major combat units and submarines to be split between the two fleet bases, providing similar capabilities on both sides of the continent. The proposed Jervis Bay naval base never became a reality; Fleet Base East was built up around HMAS Kuttabul in Sydney while HMAS Stirling is home to half the surface fleet and the entire submarine fleet.
The rationale behind the policy included the possibility of savings in fuel and maintenance that would result from Indian Ocean deployments beginning their journey from Western Australia rather than New South Wales. The report also classed the Indian Ocean as an area where contingencies might arise. The new facilities would increase Australia's worth to the United States, particularly to do with maintenance of submarines. Expansion at Jervis Bay would allow intensified east coast visits by the United States Pacific Fleet, and its nuclear warship visits would not run into as much opposition as they do in Sydney and Melbourne.[126]
The 1987 White Paper was seen by many as an attempt to strengthen Australia's relationship with the United States, which had been damaged by New Zealand's stance against nuclear weapons in its ports. In line with this policy, the RAN was structured to become more self-reliant and its activities during the late 1980s were focused on operating within Australia's local region.[127]
The Two Ocean Policy remains in place today[when?] and is supported by the current Australian Government and the opposition. The success of the policy is especially evident at HMAS Stirling. The base is thriving and its location both in a global and local context gives it an advantage over Fleet Base East. It has been suggested that all eight Anzac class ships be relocated to Stirling, this would create an easier training environment for sailors and would lead to significant cost savings.[128]
Post Cold-War
The Gulf Wars
After the end of the first Gulf War the Royal Australian Navy periodically deployed a ship to the Gulf or Red Sea to assist in maintaining sanctions against Iraq. Until the outbreak of the Second Gulf War the Australian naval force in the Persian Gulf continued to enforce the sanctions against Iraq. These operations were conducted by boarding parties from the RAN warships.[131]
Upon the outbreak of war, the
Since the end of the war the RAN has continuously maintained a frigate in the Persian Gulf to protect Iraq's oil infrastructure and participate in counter-smuggling operations. Twelve Australian sailors were deployed to
HMAS Westralia fire
On 5 May 1998, a fire broke out onboard
East Timor
During the Australian-led United Nations peacekeeping mission to
The RAN played a vital role in transporting troops and providing protection to transports and were vital to the success of INTERFET.The RAN returned to East Timor in 2006 under
Solomon Islands
On 24 July 2003,
Operation Anode was not the first time units of the RAN had been deployed to the Solomon Islands; Anode was unique in that the navy's primary role was to support and facilitate the work of the Participating Police Force (PPF). Moreover, along with being the first time the RAN had supported a police-led mission,[141]
Fiji
On 2 November 2006, in response to the
On 29 November 2006, an Australian Army S-70A Black Hawk helicopter operating from Kanimbla, and carrying ten Army personnel on board, crashed whilst attempting to land on the ship's deck, killing 1 person, injuring 7 more and leaving one missing (later confirmed dead).[144] Melville arrived on task the morning of 15 December 2006, equipped with a Towed Pinger Locating Drone supplied from the United States Navy set about locating the downed Black Hawk. Melville detected the locator beacon during its first pass over the crash site and pinpointed its exact location in subsequent passes. The helicopter was sitting in around 2900 metres of water.[145]
The coup took place on 5 December, but was bloodless and almost completely without violence. The evacuation of Australians was deemed unnecessary, and vessels of the task force began arriving back in Australia on 17 December, with Kanimbla docking in Townsville, and both Newcastle and Success returning to Sydney.[146] Melville returned to Australia in late December. The RAN decided to attempt to recover the downed Black Hawk and identified the United States Navy Supervisor of Salvage (SUPSALV) as the preferred organisation.[145] MV Seahorse Standard recovered the remains of Trooper Joshua Porter on 5 March and the Blackhawk helicopter on 9 March, with the assistance of specialist equipment provided by the SUPSALV team. The soldier's body was repatriated on 13 March, escorted by members of the SASR. Seahorse Standard arrived in Australia with the aircraft wreckage at the end of March. The wreckage would become evidence in the Board of Inquiry into the crash.[147]
Battle honours
Prior to 1989, the battle honour system of the
In 1989, the RAN Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Michael Hudson approved a decision to have Australian warships only carry battle honours earned by previous Australian vessels.[148] The creation and awarding of battle honours came completely under RAN control.[148]
A complete overhaul of the RAN battle honours system was unveiled on 1 March 2010, to celebrate the navy's 109th anniversary of creation.[150] New honours were created for operations during the 1990s and 2000s—the last approved honour prior to this was "Kuwait 1991", for Gulf War service—and the service history of previous vessels was updated to include 'due recognition' of previous actions.[150]
Women in the RAN
From 1911 to 1941 women were forbidden from serving in the RAN; the demands World War II placed on personnel and resources led to a change of policy.[151] On 21 April 1941, the Australian Naval Board sent a letter authorising the entry of women into the RAN to the Commodore-in-Charge, Sydney. The letter led to the formation of the Women's Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS) and the Royal Australian Naval Nursing Service (RANNS). The two separate women's services existed until 1984, when they were incorporated into the permanent force. Today,[when?] female members of the RAN have a wide variety of roles open to them; women serve on submarines, command ships and shore postings and are expected to play an increasingly important role in the future of the RAN.[152]
The Royal Australian Navy today[
The modern RAN began to form during the late 1970s when the Fraser Government announced the purchase of four Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates, all to be built in America; in 1980 they announced an additional two vessels both to be built in Australia. The fifteen Australian-built vessels of the Fremantle class made up Australia's patrol boat from 1979 to 2007; they have now been replaced by the fourteen Armidale-class patrol boats.
The
The Anzac class is the current main fleet unit of the Royal Australian Navy; the class has eight vessels. The lead vessel of the class, HMAS Anzac, was commissioned in 1996 and the final vessel, HMAS Perth, was commissioned on 26 August 2006. Along with the eight Australian vessels, two Anzacs were also constructed for the Royal New Zealand Navy. The Anzac class were jointly constructed in New Zealand and Australia with the final fitout in Williamstown, Victoria.
The amphibious and supply arm of the RAN as at January 2021 is made up of;
The Royal Australian Navy maintains several bases around Australia. Under the RAN's Two-Ocean Policy, HMAS Stirling (Fleet Base West) and HMAS Kuttabul (Fleet Base East) are the primary bases for all major fleet unit of the RAN. The majority of the patrol boat and amphibious forces are located at HMAS Cairns and HMAS Coonawarra, while all Fleet Air Arm squadrons are based at HMAS Albatross.
See also
- Fleet Air Arm Museum (Australia)
- Royal Australian Navy Heritage Centre
- Military history of Australia
- List of Royal Australian Navy losses
Notes
- ^ John M Wilkins, Australian Naval Reserve publication
- ^ "HERITAGE". navy.defencejobs.gov.au.
- ^ Stevens, David. "The RAN - A Brief History". Navy - Serving Australia with Pride.
- ^ a b c d Straczek, J.H. "RAN in the Second World War". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- VE day, whereas the peak strength of the RAN, in mid-1945, was less than 40,000 personnel. While the RAN surpassed the RCN in terms of the number of vessels operated during 1939–45, both navies were dwarfed by the wartime fleets of the US, British, Soviet, Japanese, German, French and probably other navies. (Rob Stuart, 2009, "Was the RCN ever the Third Largest Navy?", Canadian Naval Review, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 5–9.)
- ^ Nicholls 1988, p. 2.
- ^ Graham 1967, p. 459.
- ^ a b c d e f g Dennis et al. 2008, p.53.
- ^ OCLC 271822831.
- ^ Dennis et al. 2008, p. 54.
- ^ Blunt 2002, p. 16–17.
- ^ "Colonial Navies of Early Australia". Retrieved 23 August 2008.
- ^ Australian Naval Reserves by John M Wilkins RFD*[verification needed].
- ^ "Death of a Bluejacket". Retrieved 24 September 2007.
- ^ a b Stevens, David. "The R.A.N. – A Brief History". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ISBN 031329366X.
- ^ OCLC 55980812.
- ^ Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 Volume XI Chapter 1.
- ^ Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 Volume XI Chapter 1 Appendix 27.
- ^ "90 Years on: Rabaul and Sydney/Emden 1914". Naval Historical Society of Australia. 31 December 2004.
- ^ Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 Vol. X: The Australians at Rabaul, S.S. Mackenzie, 1927.
- ^ Burnell 1914.
- ^ "HMAS AE2". Sea Power Centre – Australia. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ OCLC 50418095.
- ^ Jose, The Royal Australian Navy 1914–1918, p. 274
- ^ Stevens, in Stevens, The Royal Australian Navy, pp. 52–3
- ^ Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 Vol. IX The Royal Australian Navy, 1914–1918.
- ^ Jose, Arthur (1928). Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, Volume IX. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. p. 396.
- ^ Jose, Arthur (1928). Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, Volume IX. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. p. 395.
- ^ Jose, Arthur (1928). Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, Volume IX. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. p. 398.
- ^ "Disbanded Bridging Train". The Argus. Melbourne: National Library of Australia. 12 July 1917. p. 9. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- ^ Stevens 2001, pp. 29—30.
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 318.
- ^ ISSN 1327-5658.
- ^ Butler, A (1943). Official History of the Medical Services 1914–1918, Vol III, Problems and Services. Canberra: Australian War Memorial.
- ^ Bradford, Gillian (4 June 2002). "New Zealand Prime Minister apologises to Samoa". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 17 October 2006.
- ^ Report of cruise to render assistance in the influenza outbreak, 14 December 1918, HMAS Encounter file, SPC-A.
- ^ a b Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Volume I – Royal Australian Navy, 1939 – 1942 (1st edition, 1957) Chapter 1 Accessed 3 September 2006.
- OCLC 61195793.
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 158.
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 105
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 104
- ^ Sourced from Gavin Long (1973), The Six Years War. A Concise History of Australia in the 1939–45 War. Australian War Memorial and Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. p 16. and G. Herman Gill (1968). Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume II – Royal Australian Navy, 1942 – 1945. Australian War Memorial, Canberra. p 710.
- ^ Stevens (1996) pp. 38–39.
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 170.
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 111.
- OCLC 32234178.
- ^ a b c d e Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, p. 165
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 121.
- ^ Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, pp. 172–3
- ^ Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, p. 173
- ^ a b Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, p. 176
- ^ a b Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, p. 177
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 180.
- ^ Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, p. 184
- ^ Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, pp. 185–6
- ^ Macdougall pg. 180
- ^ a b Macdougall 1991, p. 181.
- ^ Cassells, The Capital Ships, pp. 149–50
- ^ Cassells, The Capital Ships, p. 150
- ^ Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, pp. 192–3
- ^ Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942, p. 191
- ^ Gill 1957, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Macdougall pg. 193
- ^ Dakar: Operation Menace Archived 23 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 21 August 2006.
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 124.
- ^ a b c Stevens 2001, p. 151.
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 176.
- ^ Book review: The Guns of Dakar and Operation Menace.
- ^ a b Macdougall 1991, p. 216.
- ^ Stevens 1996, p. 54.
- ^ The Gun Plot. Retrieved 21 August 2006.
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 182.
- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 141.
- ^ a b Straczek, J.H. "The Invasion of Sicily – Operation Husky". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ "Seaman Edward 'Teddy' Sheean". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
- ISBN 0-87021-911-1.
- ^ AWM Battle of the Coral Sea.
- ^ "Sydney, June 1942". Australia under attack. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- OCLC 62548623.
- ^ Stevens 2005, pp. 205–207.
- ^ Gill 1968, pp. 253–262.
- ^ Stevens 2005, pp. 247–248.
- ^ David Stevens. Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942–1944 Archived 19 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 1 September 2006.
- ^ Stevens (2005). Page 281.
- ^ Jenkins 1992, p. 265.
- ^ AWM HMAS Canberra – Sinking of HMAS Canberra in Battle of Savo Island. Retrieved 21 August 2006.
- ^ H. P. Willmott, The Battle of Leyte Gulf: The Last Fleet Action
- ^ a b Stevens 2001, p. 148.
- ^ Gill 1968, p. 590
- ^ "Allied Ships Present in Tokyo Bay During the Surrender Ceremony, 2 September 1945". Naval Historical Center – U.S. Navy. 27 May 2005. Archived from the original on 14 August 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
Taken from Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas (CINCPAC/CINCPOA) A16-3/FF12 Serial 0395, 11 February 1946: Report of Surrender and Occupation of Japan
- ^ Frame 2004, pp. 198–199 and Stevens 2001, pp. 156–157.
- ISBN 1-86448-736-4.
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 327.
- ^ ISSN 1555-385X. p. 66
- ^ Macdougall 1991, pp. 321–323.
- ^ a b c d e f g Perryman, John. "The RAN, the Strategic Reserve and the Malayan Emergency". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ Perryman, John. "Indonesian Confrontation". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ a b c Stevens 2001, p. 201
- ^ a b Macdougall 1991, p. 332.
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, pp. 11–12
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, pp. 12–13
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, pp. 1–3, 14–15
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, p. 5
- ^ Frame, Where Fate Calls, pp. 27, 43–6
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, pp. 67–9
- ^ a b Stevens 2001, p. 202.
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, pp. 68, 82, 88, 114–7
- ^ Frame, A Cruel Legacy, pp. 159–60
- OCLC 27433673.
- ^ a b Straczek, Jozef. "Naval Operations in Vietnam". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ a b Frame, Pacific Partners, p. 126.
- ^ a b Frame, Pacific Partners, p. 127.
- ^ Frame, Pacific Partners, pp. 130–131.
- OCLC 2525523.
- ^ Macdougall 1991, p. 338.
- ^ "Tropical Cyclone Extremes". Bureau of Meteorology. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Disaster Relief – Cyclone Tracy and Tasman Bridge". Semaphore. Sea Power Centre. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
- ^ Johnson. E, Operation Navy help: Disaster operations by the RAN post Cyclone-Tracy, Northern Territory Library Service, Darwin, 1987, p. 2.
- ^ a b c d "The Pacific Patrol Boat Project". Semaphore. Sea Power Centre. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ Tom Frame (2004), No Pleasure Cruise. The Story of the Royal Australian Navy. Allen & Unwin, Sydney. p. 251.
- ^ Watson, Bruce & Watson, Susan The Soviet Navy Strengths and Liabilities, Boulder: Westview Press, 1986 p.241
- ^ Frame. Pg. 257.
- ^ Frame 2004, p. 262.
- ^ Analysis of the 1987 Defence White Paper Accessed on 27 August 2006 Archived 24 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Frame 2004, pp. 267–272.
- ^ "Speech by Vice Admiral Chris Ritchie, AO, RAN – Chief of Navy: To the Australian Industry Defence Network- Western Australia". 24 June 2004. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006.
- ^ "The Gulf War 1990–91". Defence.gov.au. Archived from the original on 24 February 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- ^ Australian War Memorial. Gulf War 1990–1991 and Commander J.P. Hodgman (editor) (1991). Australia's Navy 1991 – 92. Australian Department of Defence. Canberra.
- ^ Greg Nash and David Stevens (2006) Australia's Navy in the Gulf. From Countenance to Catalyst, 1941–2006. Topmill, Sydney. pp. 61–63.
- ^ Nash and Stevens (2006). pp. 66–72.
- ^ Nash and Stevens (2006). Pages 80–81.
- ^ Journalist Seaman Joseph Ebalo, Australian-Led Command Patrols Persian Gulf Archived 23 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Navy newsstand. 10 May 2005.
- ^ Lt. Karen E. Eifert U.S. Navy Takes the Reins of CTF 158 from Royal Australian Navy Archived 21 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Navy newsstand. 15 November 2006.
- ^ "Westralia Board of Inquiry" (PDF subpages). Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ Westralia sailors set for $10m compo The Age Newspaper Accessed 13 September 2006.
- ^ INTERFET Military Personnel Chart accessed 27 August 2006 Archived 10 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Navy News.
- ^ "The Royal Australian Navy and the restoration of stability in the Solomon Islands". Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ C. Woods, 'Bikfala Sip: Aussies come to Help our Pacific Friends', Navy News, 14 August 2003. Retrieved 14 September 2006.
- ^ Aussie Navy vessels ready for Fiji evacuation Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Fiji Times, 24 November 2006.
- ^ "ADF Task Group in the South-West Pacific returns to Australia" (Press release). Department of Defence. 20 December 2006. Archived from the original on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2007.
- ^ "One dead, one missing in Black Hawk crash off Fiji". ABC. 29 November 2006. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2013. and "BLACK HAWK HELICOPTER LOST NEAR FIJI (.wmv)". Australian Defence Force. 29 November 2006. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
- ^ a b "NAVY DETECTS MISSING BLACK HAWK'S LOCATOR BEACON". Australian Defence Force. 15 December 2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006. and "NAVY TO CONDUCT FURTHER SURVEY OF LOST BLACK HAWK LOCATION". Australian Defence Force. 16 January 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
- ^ "Fiji navy task force returns". The Australian. 17 December 2006. Retrieved 17 December 2006.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Blackhawk recovered from the seabed". 9 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ a b c d Cassells, The Destroyers, p. 233
- ^ Cassells, The Destroyers, p. 1
- ^ a b "Navy Marks 109th Birthday With Historic Changes To Battle Honours". Royal Australian Navy. 1 March 2010. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
- ^ "Women in the RAN: The Road to Command At Sea". Semaphore. 2006 (19). November 2006. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ "Women in the RAN".
- ^ Royal Australian Navy Official Website. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
- ^ "About the Royal Australian Navy". Defence Life Magazine for Defence Families.
References
- Burnell, Frederick. (1914). How Australia took German New Guinea : An illustrated record of the Australian Naval & Military Expeditionary Force. Australasian News, Sydney.
- Cassells, Vic (2000). The Capital Ships: their battles and their badges. East Roseville, NSW: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 48761594.
- Cassells, Vic (2000). The Destroyers: their battles and their badges. East Roseville, NSW: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 46829686.
- OCLC 55980812.
- OCLC 61213421.
- Macdougall, A. (1991). Australians at War A Pictorial History, The Five Mile Press, ISBN 1-86503-865-2
- Nash, Greg and David Stevens (2006). Australia's Navy in the Gulf. From Countenance to Catalyst, 1941–2006. Topmill, Sydney.
- Stevens, David (1996). The Royal Australian Navy in World War II. Allen & Unwin, Sydney, ISBN 1-74114-184-2
- Stevens, David (2005). A Critical Vulnerability: the impact of the submarine threat on Australia's maritime defense 1915–1954. Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs. Vol. 15. Canberra: Sea Power Centre Australia. OCLC 62548623. Archived from the originalon 13 June 2011.
- Stevens, David, ed. (2001). The Royal Australian Navy. The Australian Centenary History of Defence (vol III). South Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press. OCLC 50418095.
- Stevens, David Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942–1944
- Jenkins, David (1992). Battle Surface! Japan's Submarine War Against Australia 1942–44. Milsons Point, NSW: Random House Australia. OCLC 0091826381.
- Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918
- Jose, A.W. (1941). Volume IX – The Royal Australian Navy, 1914 – 1918 (9th edition, 1941). Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
- Australia in the War of 1939–1945
- Gill, G. Hermon (1957). Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume I – Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942. Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
- Gill, G. Hermon (1968). Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume II – Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945. Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
- Long, Gavin (1973). The Six Years War. A Concise History of Australia in the 1939–45 War. Australian War Memorial and Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
- Royal Australian Navy Sea Power Centre
Further reading
- Haken, John (2015). "The Formation of Naval Forces in the Commonwealth of Australia". Sabretache. LVI (3, September). Garran, Australian Capital Territory: Military Historical Society of Australia: 54. ISSN 0048-8933.
External links
- Royal Australian Navy Articles from ADF-History.com
- Navy Fleet