History of the Russian Orthodox Church
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Overview |
The
Christianization of Rus
The
By the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community amongst Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Greek and Byzantine priests, although paganism remained and would long remain the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus to convert to Christianity, either in 945 or 957.
The
In 1054, the Great Schism occurred, and Russian church ceased to be in communion with the Pope.
Under Mongol rule
The Russian church enjoyed a favoured position while parts of Russia lay under
15th century
During the 15th century the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival and life of the Russian state. Such holy figures as
At the Council of Florence 1439, a group of Orthodox leaders agreed upon terms of reunification with Rome. The Moscow Prince Vasily II, however, rejected Florence's concessions to Rome and forbade the proclamation of the acts of the Council in Moscow in 1452. Metropolitan Isidore, who had signed the Council's acts, was expelled from his position for apostasy in the same year.
In 1448, the Russian Church in Moscow
Metropolitan Jonas, like his predecessors, was given the title of Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus', but his successors styled themselves as Metropolitans of Moscow and All Rus'. Five years later, Constantinople
Changes and reforms
The reign of
Monastic life flourished, with two major strands co-existing until the definitive defeat of the
In the 1540s,
Autocephaly and reorganization
During the reign of Tsar
17th century
The beginning of the 17th century proved to be a
Schism of the Old Believers
The year 1666 saw the start of the schism of the
The schism peaked in 1666 when Nikon was deposed but the Moscow Church endorsed his reforms and anathematized those who continued to oppose them. The Old Believers had formed a vigorous body of dissenters within the Russian Orthodoxy for the next two centuries.
Territorial expansion
In the late 17th and the next two centuries, due to the expansion of the boundaries of the Russian state, the Russian Church experienced phenomenal geographic expansion too.
In 1686, the Moscow Patriarchate obtained a part of the
Following the incorporation of Georgia into Russia in the early 19th century, the de facto independence that the Orthodox Church had enjoyed in that country was abolished in 1811 and the Georgian Church became an exarchate of the Russian Church.[9]
In the 19th century, there were missionary efforts in Russia's possessions in
Abolition of patriarchy and the Holy Synod
In 1700, upon the death of
In 1762 Peter III made an attempt to secularize all church land and serfs. Catherine the Great, who initially reversed Peter's decree, eventually re-affirmed it in 1764 and went still further by closing 569 out of 954 monasteries.[10] In 1785 the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat in Catherine's legislative commission.[11] By 1786, Catherine chose to simply exclude all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.[12] In 1797 the Holy Synod banned the election of priests who were now appointed by bishops.[13]
The 18th century saw the rise of starchestvo under Paisius Velichkovsky and his disciples at the Optina Monastery. This marked a beginning of a significant spiritual revival in the Russian Church after a lengthy period of modernization.
Fin-de-siècle religious renaissance
During the final decades of the imperial order in Russia many educated Russians sought to return to the Church and revitalize their faith. No less evident were non-conformist paths of spiritual searching known as
A series of 'Religious–Philosophical Meetings' were held in Saint Petersburg in 1901–1903, bringing together prominent intellectuals and clergy to explore together ways to reconcile the Church with the growing if undogmatic desire among the educated for spiritual meaning in life. Especially after 1905, various religious societies arose, though much of this religious upheaval was informal: circles and salons, séances, private prayer. Some clergy also sought to revitalize Orthodox faith, most famously the charismatic Father John of Kronstadt, who, until his death in 1908 (though his followers remained active long after), emphasized Christian living and sought to restore fervency and the presence of the miraculous in liturgical celebration.
In 1909, a sensation-creating volume of essays appeared under the title
One sees a similarly renewed vigor and variety in religious life and spirituality among the lower classes, especially after the upheavals of 1905. Among the peasantry we see widespread interest in spiritual-ethical literature and non-conformist moral-spiritual movements, as well as an upsurge in pilgrimage and other devotions to sacred spaces and objects (especially icons).There were also persistent beliefs in the presence and power of the supernatural (apparitions, possession, walking-dead, demons, spirits, miracles, and magic). The lower classes also stressed the vitality of local "ecclesial communities" actively shaping their own ritual and spiritual lives, sometimes in the absence of clergy, and defining their own sacred places and forms of piety. Various heterodox beliefs, which the Orthodox establishment branded as 'sectarianism', also flourished, including both non-Orthodox Christian denominations, notably Baptists, and various forms of deviant popular Orthodoxy and mysticism.[14]
Russian revolution
In 1914 in Russia, there were 55,173 Russian Orthodox
The year 1917 was a major turning point for the history of Russia, and also the Russian Orthodox Church. The
According to Lenin, a communist regime cannot remain neutral on the question of religion but must show itself to be merciless towards it. There was no place for the church in Lenin's classless society.
Even before the end of the civil war and the establishment of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church came under persecution of the Communist government. The Soviet government stood on a platform of militant atheism, viewing the church as a "counter-revolutionary" organization and an independent voice with a great influence in society. While the Soviet Union officially claimed religious toleration, in practice the government discouraged organized religion and did everything possible to remove religious influence from Soviet society.
The Russian Orthodox Church supported tsarist Russia, therefore creating another reason the Bolsheviks would attempt to diminish their influence on the Russian people and government.
Under Communist rule
"As early as August 1920
The Soviets' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established atheism as the only scientific truth (see also the Soviet or committee of the All-Union Society for the Dissemination of Scientific and Political Knowledge or Znanie which was until 1947 called
Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with
In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.
Russian Religious Renaissance
In the early 1920s, Lenin expelled the leading Russian religious thinkers. Forced to leave Russia, these theologians settled in various European cities. The vessels which carried these intellectuals to Europe came to be known as the
Theologian
Anti-religious campaign and persecution in the 1920s and 1930s
The sixth sector of the
The church survived underground, and Freeze argues that the persecution in some ways made it stronger:
- Indeed, the party's anti-religious policy arguably had a certain salutary effect: if nothing else, it helped to expunge the clerical dead wood, those who served from convenience rather than conviction. More important, the Bolsheviks unwittingly helped to foster religious revival in the 1920s: by demolishing the institutional church and shifting the authority to the parish, they helped to empower parishioners, above all, religious activists. It was precisely because these non-clerical tserkovniki so aggressively propagated the faith and defended their church that they would become a prime target of repression in the 1930s.[27]
The mass closure of churches continued until 1939, by which time there was only a few hundred left. According to the official data of the government Commission on Rehabilitation:[28] in 1937 136,900 Orthodox clerics were arrested, 85,300 of them were shot dead; in 1938 28,300 arrested, 21,500 of them shot dead; in 1939 1,500 arrested, 900 of them shot dead; in 1940 5,100 arrested, 1,100 of them shot dead.
The
Many thousands of victims of persecution were subsequently recognized in a special canon of saints known as the "
Patriarch Tikhon
The Soviet authorities sponsored I
Metropolitan Sergius
When Tikhon died in 1925, the Soviet authorities forbade patriarchal elections to be held.
Patriarchal Locum Tenens (acting Patriarch)
This, as well as the fact that his actions were seen by many as usurpation of the power that he was not entitled to, being a deputy of imprisoned Metropolitan
World War II rapprochement
After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. On September 4, 1943, Metropolitans
Postwar era
Between 1945 and 1959 the number of open churches reached 25,000. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy were executed by the end of the Khrushchev era.[24] Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB.
In the postwar era, having changed its political orientation, the Orthodox Church reviewed its traditional positions. It went on to approve the accomplishments of the socialist state, and it called on believers to participate in the international peace movement. Modernist tendencies grew stronger, even in the religious aspects of ideology and practice. For example, the church no longer glorified senseless suffering, which it once considered as a road of salvation.[34]
Relations between the church and state improved considerably. For his work, Patriarch Pimen was awarded testimonials and personal medals by the Soviet Peace Fund (1969 and 1971)[clarification needed] and the gold Fighter for Peace medal from the Soviet Peace Committee. His predecessor Patriarch Aleksy was awarded four Orders of the Red Banner of Labor and other medals of the USSR.[34]
By 1987 the number of functioning churches in the Soviet Union stood at 6893 and the number of functioning monasteries to 18.[35]
Citizens of the USSR were permitted to form religious societies for their religious needs if at least 20 believers reached the age of 18. Believers who composed an association performed religious rites, organized meetings for prayer, and other purposes connected to worship. They hired ministers and other persons to meet their needs, collected voluntary contributions in houses of worship for the support of their property. The Government granted the free use of houses of worship and other publicly owned property of the USSR. Russian Orthodox priests were trained at theological academies and seminaries[34]
In the Soviet Union the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities were regulated by the government. Church owned property was nationalized. Places of worship were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church's influence on education declined. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it was restricted from evangelizing.
Glasnost
A pivotal point in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988 with the
Post-Soviet recovery
The
In November 2013, a large group of Russian entrepreneurs, public figures and scientists called for defining a special role of Orthodoxy in the Constitution. The appeal has been submitted to the president, the two houses of the Russian Parliament and Russian regional parliaments. The petitioners say their address was the final document of the conference titled "The Triumph and Collapse of an Empire: Lessons from History". According to them "The state sovereignty of the Russian Federation is law. Our call is for backing up its spiritual sovereignty, too, by declaring the Orthodoxy's special role in the Russian Constitution".[36]
Churches in America
After resuming communication with Moscow in the early 1960s, and being granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia became known as the Orthodox Church in America.[37]
On 17 May 2007, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia signed the
See also
- History of Eastern Christianity
- History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
- History of Christianity in Ukraine
- Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia
- Orthodox Church in America
References
- ^ Damick, Andrew S. "Life of the Apostle Andrew". chrysostom.org. Archived from the original on 2007-07-27. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
- ^ Voronov, Theodore (2001-10-13). "The Baptism of Russia and Its Significance for Today". orthodox.clara.net. Archived from the original on 2007-04-18. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- ^ Karl August von Hase. A history of the Christian Church. Oxford, 1855. Page 481.
- ^ РПЦ: вмешательство Константинополя в ситуацию на Украине может породить новые расколы: Митрополит Волоколамский Иларион завил, что Русская православная церковь представит доказательства неправомерности притязаний Константинополя на Украину TASS, 1 September 2018.
- ^ Ecumenical Patriarch Takes Moscow Down a Peg Over Church Relations with Ukraine orthodoxyindialogue.com, 2 July 2018.
- Bartholomewafter the memorial service for the late Metropolitan of Perge, Evangelos) The official website of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, 2 July 2018.
- ^ Константин Ветошников. «Передача» Киевской митрополии Московскому патриархату в 1686 году: канонический анализ risu.org.ua, 25 December 2016.
- ^ Suny pp. 84–85
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, page 242
- ^ Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire, page 231
- ^ Marc Raeff, Catherine the Great: A Profile (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 298.
- ^ Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire, page 229
- ^ A.S. Pankratov, Ishchushchie boga (Moscow, 1911); Vera Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy on the Eve of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Gregory Freeze, 'Subversive Piety: Religion and the Political Crisis in Late Imperial Russia', Journal of Modern History, vol. 68 (June 1996): 308–50; Mark Steinberg and Heather Coleman, eds. Sacred Stories: Religion and Spirituality in Modern Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007)
- ISBN 978-1-887904-52-0
- ISBN 0-88141-179-5p. 291
- ISBN 0-312-38132-8
- ISBN 978-0-8014-3485-3)
- ^ Sermons to young people by Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa. Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary, The Word online. Bucharest http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/resources/sermons/calciu_christ_calling.htm
- ISBN 0-88141-180-9
- ^ The Washington Post Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa By Patricia Sullivan Washington Post Staff Writer Sunday, November 26, 2006; p. C09 https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/25/AR2006112500783.html
- ^ Dumitru Bacu, The Anti-Humans. Student Re-Education in Romanian Prisons Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, Soldiers of the Cross, Englewood, Colorado, 1971. Originally written in Romanian as Piteşti, Centru de Reeducare Studenţească, Madrid, 1963
- ^ Adrian Cioroianu, Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005
- ^ a b Ostling, Richard. "Cross meets Kremlin". Time. June 24, 2001.
- ^ "The Orthodox Renaissance | Paul L. Gavrilyuk".
- ^ Kishkovsky, Sophia (June 8, 2007). "Former Killing Ground Becomes Shrine to Stalin's Victims". The New York Times.
- ^ Freeze, "Recent Scholarship on Russian Orthodoxy" (2008) p. 276
- ^ Дамаскин (Орловский). Гонения на Русскую Православную Церковь в советский период
- ^ Solovetsky Camp. Solovki Camp. Solovetsky Island
- ^ Alekseev, Valery. ИСТОРИКО-КАНОНИЧЕСКАЯ СПРАВКА о причинах, побуждающих верующих покидать Московскую патриархию (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-07-12. (Created for the government of Moldova).
- ^ Talantov, Boris (1968). "The Moscow Patriarchate and Sergianism". Orthodox Christian Information Center (orthodoxinfo.com). Retrieved 2007-07-12. (English translation).
- ^ Belikow, Yaroslav (December 11, 2004). "The Visit of His Eminence Metropolitan Laurus to the Parishes of Argentina and Venezuela". Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia (russianorthodoxchurch.ws). Archived from the original on April 29, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
- ^ "Patriarch Tikhon's Catacomb Church. History of the Russian True Orthodox Church". Церковные Ведомости Русской Истинно-Православной Церкви (catacomb.org.ua). Retrieved 2007-07-12.
- ^ a b c Православная церковь in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969–1978 (in Russian)
- ^ The Orthodox Church in the History of Russia p. 313
- Itar Tass. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
- ^ Matusiak, John. "A History and Introduction of the Orthodox Church in America". Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
Further reading
- Billington, James H. The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretative History of Russian Culture (1970)
- Bremer, Thomas. Cross and Kremlin: A Brief History of the Orthodox Church in Russia (2013)
- Cracraft, James. The Church Reform of Peter the Great (1971)
- Ellis, Jane. The Russian Orthodox Church: A Contemporary History (1988)
- Freeze, Gregory L. "Handmaiden of the state? The church in Imperial Russia reconsidered". Journal of Ecclesiastical History 36#1 (1985): 82–102.
- Freeze, Gregory L. "Subversive piety: Religion and the political crisis in late Imperial Russia". Journal of Modern History (1996): 308–50. in JSTOR
- Freeze, Gregory L. "The Orthodox Church and Serfdom in Prereform Russia". Slavic Review (1989): 361–87. in JSTOR
- Freeze, Gregory L. "Social Mobility and the Russian Parish Clergy in the Eighteenth Century". Slavic Review (1974): 641–62. in JSTOR
- Freeze, Gregory L. The Parish Clergy in Nineteenth-Century Russia: Crisis, Reform, Counter-Reform (1983)
- Freeze, Gregory L. "A case of stunted Anticlericalism: Clergy and Society in Imperial Russia". European History Quarterly 13#.2 (1983): 177–200.
- Freeze, Gregory L. Russian Levites: Parish Clergy in the Eighteenth Century (1977)
- Garrard, John and Carol Garrard. Russian Orthodoxy Resurgent: Faith and Power in the New Russia (2008)
- Gruber, Isaiah. Orthodox Russia in Crisis: Church and Nation in the Time of Troubles (2012); 17th century
- Hughes, Lindsey. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (1998) pp. 332–56
- Kizenko, Nadieszda. A Prodigal Saint: Father John of Kronstadt and the Russian People (2000) This highly influential holy man lived 1829–1908.
- Kozelsky, Mara. Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond (2010).
- de Madariaga, Isabel. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (1981) pp. 111–22
- Mrowczynski-Van Allen, Artur, ed. Apology of Culture: Religion and Culture in Russian Thought (2015)
- Plamper, Jan. "The Russian Orthodox Episcopate, 1721–1917: a Prosopography". Journal of Social History 34.1 (2000): 5–34. in JSTOR; online
- Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime (2nd ed. 1976) ch 9
- Pospielovsky, Dimitry. The Orthodox Church in the History of Russia (St Vladimir's Press, 1998) ISBN 0-88141-179-5
- Richters, Katja. The Post-Soviet Russian Orthodox Church: Politics, Culture and Greater Russia (2014)
- Strickland, John. The Making of Holy Russia: The Orthodox Church and Russian Nationalism Before the Revolution (2013)
- Shubin, Daniel H. History of Russian Christianity, in 4 volumes: ISBN 978-1365408458
Historiography
- Freeze, Gregory L. "Recent Scholarship on Russian Orthodoxy: A Critique". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 2#2 (2008): 269–78. online
External links
- Hilarion (Alfeyev) (2005). "Atheism and Orthodoxy in Modern Russia".