History of the United Arab Emirates
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The
Artifacts uncovered in the UAE show a history of human habitation, transmigration and trade spanning over 125,000 years.
Through the
A number of incursions and battles took place along the coast when the Portuguese, under Afonso de Albuquerque, invaded the area and disrupted the Arab trade networks, triggering a decline in trade and a rise in regional conflict following the fragmentation of Hormuzi authority. Subsequent conflicts between the maritime communities of the Trucial Coast and the British led to the sacking of Ras Al Khaimah by British forces in 1809 and again in 1819, which resulted in the first of a number of British treaties with the Trucial Rulers in 1820. These treaties, starting with the General Maritime Treaty of 1820, led to peace and prosperity along the coast and supported a lively trade in high quality natural pearls as well as a resurgence in other regional trade. A further treaty of 1892 devolved external relations to the British in return for protectorate status.
A British decision, taken in early 1968, to withdraw from its involvement in the Trucial States, led to the decision to found a Federation. This was agreed between two of the most influential Trucial Rulers,
Today, the UAE is a modern, oil exporting country with a highly diversified economy, with Dubai in particular developing into a global city and a hub for tourism, retail, and finance,[12] home to the world's tallest building, and largest man-made seaport.
Prehistory
In 2011 primitive hand-axes, as well as several kinds of scrapers and perforators, were excavated at the
Glacial period
During the glacial maximum period, 68,000 to 8000 BCE, Eastern Arabia is thought to have been uninhabitable. Finds from the Stone Age Arabian Bifacial and Ubaid cultures (including knapped stone arrow and axe heads as well as Ubaid pottery) show human habitation in the area from 5000 to 3100 BCE and define a linkage between the human settlements of the Gulf and those of Mesopotamia. The archaeological record shows that Arabian Bifacial/Ubaid period came to an abrupt end in eastern Arabia and the Oman peninsula at 3800 BC, just after the phase of lake lowering and onset of dune reactivation.[16]
Within the area of Baynunah in the western region of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, a camel-slaughter site dating to about 6,000 years ago has been discovered.[14]
Hafit period
The
Bronze Age: Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq Cultures
Umm Al Nar (also known as Umm an-Nar) was a Bronze Age culture variously defined by archaeologists as existing around 2600 to 2000 BCE in the area of the modern-day UAE and Oman. The etymology derives from the island of the same name which lies adjacent to Abu Dhabi.[21][22] The key site is well protected, but its location between a refinery and a sensitive military area means public access is currently restricted. The UAE authorities are working to improve public access to the site, and plan to make this part of the Abu Dhabi cultural locations. One element of the Umm Al Nar culture is circular tombs typically characterized by well fitted stones in the outer wall and multiple human remains within.[23]
The Umm Al Nar culture covers some six centuries (2600-2000 BCE), and includes further extensive evidence both of trade with the
It was followed by the
in Ras Al Khaimah show evidence of transitional Umm Al Nar to Wadi Suq burials.The domestication of camels and other animals took place during the Wadi Suq era (2000-1300 BCE),
Iron Age
From 1,200 BC to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive Iron Ages (Iron Age 1, 1200-1000 BC; Iron Age II, 1000-600 BC and Iron Age III 600-300 BC) and the Hellenistic Mleiha period (300 BC onward), the area was variously occupied by
Mleiha
Beginning in 300 BC, archaeological evidence shows the remains of a large city, with its capital inside present day Sharjah, in the town of Mleiha. The city seems to begin with non-permanent structures making up the majority of buildings. However, monumental tombs built out of stone and mud-brick were erected, suggesting that the occupants were able to build permanent structures, but willingly lived a nomadic lifestyle. The architecture of these monumental tombs share features with other Pre-Islamic sites in Arabia, such as Qaryat Al Faw, Hegra, and Petra, which could suggest a shared culture throughout Arabia which began in Mleiha.[27]
Many large buildings were found at the Mleiha site, including multiple forts, palaces, homes and tombs. The site of Mleiha also seems to be deeply connected with the nearby ancient city of
Kingdom of Oman
Memorial and tomb of ʿAmud son of Gurr son of ʿAli, inspector of the king of Oman, which built over him his sonʿAmud son of ʿAmud son of Gurr,inspector of the king of Oman...
—Funerary Tablet, from the Tomb of Amud, 215 BC.[28]
Funerary inscriptions from the mid 2nd century BC state the presence of a major kingdom in Mleiha, with the name “Uman”. This kingdom is considered to be the first ever nation of Oman, and it encompassed much of modern-day UAE and the northern regions of Oman. This kingdom is mentioned by Greek writers Pliny the Elder and Strabo as Omana. Furthermore, local coins have been minted in Mleiha. The coinage in Mleiha mixes Hellenistic and Arabian features. Moreover, the coins are under the name Abiel, the ruling dynasty in the kingdom of Oman. Large palace complexes were built for the ruling class, however after the 3rd century AD the entire site appears to be abandoned and this seems to mark the fall of the kingdom.[29]
Advent of Islam and the Middle Ages
The arrival of envoys from
Over many centuries, Julfar became a wealthy port and pearling centre from which dhows travelled throughout the Indian Ocean.[18]
The pearling industry and the Portuguese empire: 16th - 18th century
The pearling industry was part of the main economy of the coastal communities across Eastern Arabia and thrived in the relative calm at sea, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. In total, about two to three thousand local ships were involved in the seasonal extraction of pearls from communities across the Gulf. The annual income was over half million curzados (old Portuguese currency) and workers at Julfar and surrounding areas were paid in pearls instead of cash.[31] In 1907, some 4,500 pearling boats were operating from Gulf ports in an industry employing over 74,000 men.[32]
Western coast
The main centers of pearling extended from Bida (Doha) to Dubai. The main season was in
Northern and Persian coast
The
Pearling culture
At the start of the pearling season, which was from June to September, thousands of local ships would gather at a fixed place with necessary provisions to last for up to three months at sea and a day of commencement would be agreed on. On that day, great celebrations were held along with the customary observance of religious rites and the tradition of charming sharks so that they would not harm the divers. The ships would then disperse on a clear, windless day when the sea was calm.[31]
Each ship carried divers who then dived to the bottom of the sea to gather pearls. In order to enable the divers to reach the bottom, two heavy stones were tied to the diver's feet and a chord to his waist. The chord end was held in the hands of those who were to pull him out. When the bag of pearls became full, the diver would signal to be pulled out with those who pulled having to remain alert to avoid the diver dying from a lack of oxygen.[31]
Decline of the pearling industry
The Japanese cultured pearl, initially regarded as a wonder and shown at expos and other fairs,[34] started to be produced in commercial quantities in the late 1920s. The influx of inexpensive, high quality pearls onto world markets took place alongside the economic impact of the Great Depression. The result on the Gulf's pearl markets was devastating. In 1929, 60 of Dubai's pearling boats (in 1907 there were 335 boats operating out of the port) stayed in port throughout the season.[35]
The complex system of financing that underpinned the pearling industry, the relationship between owners, pearl merchants, nakhudas (captains) and divers and pullers fell apart and left an increasingly large number of working men in the town facing destitution.[36]
The pearling industry
British empire: 19th - 20th century
Thereafter, the region was known to the British as the "
Persian Gulf campaign of 1809
After years of incidents where British shipping had fallen foul of the aggressive Al Qasimi, with the first incidents taking place under the rule of Saqr bin Rashid Al Qasimi in 1797, an expeditionary force embarked for Ras Al Khaimah in 1809, the Persian Gulf campaign of 1809. This campaign led to the signing of a peace treaty between the British and Hussan Bin Rahmah, the Al Qasimi leader. This broke down in 1815. J. G. Lorimer contends that after the dissolution of the arrangement, the Al Qasimi "now indulged in a carnival of maritime lawlessness, to which even their own previous record presented no parallel".[42][43]
After an additional year of recurring attacks, at the end of 1818 Hassan bin Rahmah made conciliatory overtures to Bombay and was "sternly rejected." Naval resources commanded by the Al Qasimi during this period were estimated at 60 large boats headquartered in Ras Al Khaimah, carrying from 80 to 300 men each, as well as 40 smaller vessels housed in other nearby ports.[44]
Persian Gulf campaign of 1819 and General Maritime Treaty of 1820
In November 1819, the British embarked on an expedition against the Al Qasimi, led by Major General
With the fall of Ras Al Khaimah and the final surrender of Dhayah Fort, the British established a garrison in Ras Al Khaimah of 800 sepoys and artillery, before visiting Jazirat Al Hamra, which was found to be deserted. They went on to destroy the fortifications and larger vessels of Umm Al Qawain, Ajman, Fasht, Sharjah, Abu Hail, and Dubai. Ten vessels that had taken shelter in Bahrain were also destroyed.[47]
As a consequence of the campaign, the next year, a peace treaty was signed with all the
The 1820 treaty was followed by the 1847 'Engagement to Prohibit Exportation of Slaves From Africa on board of Vessels Belonging to Bahrain and to the Trucial States and the Allow Right of Search of April–May 1847'.[48] By this time, some of the smaller Sheikhdoms had been subsumed by their larger neighbours and signatories were Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr of Ras Al Khaimah; Sheikh Maktoum of Dubai; Sheikh Abdulaziz of Ajman, Sheikh Abdullah bin Rashid of Umm Al Quwain and Sheikh Saeed bin Tahnoun of Abu Dhabi.
The treaty only granted protection to British vessels and did not prevent coastal wars between tribes. As a result, raids continued intermittently until 1835, when the sheikhs agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea for a period of one year. The truce was renewed every year until 1853.
Perpetual Maritime Truce
In 1853, the Perpetual Maritime Truce of 4 May 1853 prohibited any act of aggression at sea and was signed by Abdulla bin Rashid of Umm Al Quwain; Hamed bin Rashid of Ajman; Saeed bin Butti of Dubai; Saeed bin Tahnoun ('Chief of the Beniyas') and Sultan bin Saqr ('Chief of the Joasmees').[49] A further engagement for the suppression of the slave trade was signed in 1856 and then in 1864, the 'Additional Article to the Maritime Truce Providing for the Protection of the Telegraph Line and Stations, Dated 1864'. An agreement regarding the treatment of absconding debtors followed in June 1879.[50][51]
Exclusive Agreement
Signed in 1892, the 'Exclusive Agreement' bound the Rulers not to enter into 'any agreement or correspondence with any Power other than the British Government' and that without British assent, they would not 'consent to the residence within my territory of the agent of any other government' and that they would not 'cede, sell, mortgage or otherwise give for occupation any part of my territory, save to the British Government.[52][53] In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack.[citation needed]
Trucial States affairs
Significantly, the treaties with the British were maritime in nature and the Trucial Rulers were free to manage their internal affairs, although they often brought the British (and their naval firepower) to bear on their frequent disputes. This was particularly the case where disputes involved indebtedness to British and Indian nationals.
During the late 19th and early 20th-century a number of changes occurred to the status of various emirates, for instance emirates such as Rams and Zyah (now part of Ras Al Khaimah) were signatories to the original 1819 treaty but not recognised by the British as trucial states in their own right, while the emirate of Fujairah, today one of the seven emirates that comprise the United Arab Emirates, was not recognised as a Trucial State until 1952. Kalba, recognised as a Trucial State by the British in 1936 is today part of the emirate of Sharjah.[54]
Until 1930's, the British refrained from interfering in the internal affairs of the Trucial Sheikdoms as long as the peace was kept in contrast to their policy in Oman where they were concerned on maintaining stability of Oman's Sultanate and were eager to maintain their airbase in Masirah Island. According to a British official:
They could fight each other as much as they liked by land, and we did not hesitate to recognize a ruler who had acquired power by murder. The construction of an airport at Sharjah and the grant of oil concessions to an oil company forced us to modify this policy to some extent.[55]
Discovery of oil
In the 1930s, the first oil company teams carried out preliminary surveys. An onshore concession was granted to Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) in 1939, and an offshore concession to D'Arcy Exploration Ltd in 1952.[56] Exploration concessions were limited to British companies only following the conclusion of agreements with the Trucial Sheikhs and British government. Management of the Trucial Coast moved from the British Government in Bombay to the Foreign Office in London in 1947, with Indian independence. The Political Resident in the Gulf headed the small team responsible for liaison with the Trucial Sheikhs and was based in Bushire until 1946, when his office was moved to Bahrain. Day-to-day management of affairs was carried out by the 'Native Agent', a post established with the 1820 treaty and abolished in 1949. This agent was bolstered by a British Political Officer based in Sharjah, from 1937 onwards.[57]
Oil was discovered under an old pearling bed in the Persian Gulf, Umm Shaif, in 1958, and in the desert at Murban in 1960. The first cargo of crude was exported from Jabel Dhanna in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in 1962. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was also able to use oil revenues to improve his people's quality of life.[58]
Buraimi dispute
In 1952 a group of some 80 Saudi Arabian guards, 40 of whom were armed, led by the Saudi Emir of Ras Tanura, Turki Abdullah al Otaishan, crossed Abu Dhabi territory and occupied Hamasa, one of three Omani villages in the Oasis, claiming it as part of the eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. The Sulṭan of Muscat and Imam of Oman gathered their forces to expel the Saudis but were persuaded by the British Government to exercise restraint pending attempts to settle the dispute by arbitration. A British military build-up took place, leading to the implementation of a standstill agreement and the referral of the dispute to an international arbitration tribunal. In 1955 arbitration proceedings began in Geneva only to collapse when the British arbitrator, Sir Reader Bullard, objected to Saudi Arabian attempts to influence the tribunal and withdrew. A few weeks later, the Saudi party was forcibly ejected from Hamasa by the Trucial Oman Levies.[59]
The dispute was finally settled in 1974 by an agreement, known as the Treaty of Jeddah, between Sheikh Zayed (then President of the UAE) and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia.[60]
Independence and union: 1960 - 1971
In the early 1960s, oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi, an event that led to quick unification calls made by UAE sheikdoms. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966, and the British started losing their oil investments and contracts to U.S.
The British had earlier started a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. They formed the Trucial States Council,[62] and appointed Adi Bitar, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the council. This council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.[63]
British withdrawal
By 1966, the British government had come to the conclusion that it could no longer afford to govern what is now the United Arab Emirates.[64] Much deliberation took place in the British parliament, with a number of MPs arguing that the Royal Navy would not be able to defend the Trucial Sheikhdoms. Denis Healey, who, at the time, was the UK Secretary of State for Defence, reported that the British Armed Forces were severely overextended, and in some respects, dangerously under-equipped to defend the Sheikhdoms.[65] On 16 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the decision to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms which had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection.[66] The British decision to withdraw was reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath.[18]
The region faced a host of serious local and regional problems. There were Iranian claims over Bahrain and other islands in the Gulf, territorial disputes between Qatar and Bahrain over
Federation of nine emirates
After Labour MP
Further political issues surfaced as a result of Bahrain attempting to impose a leading role in the nine-state union, as well as the emergence of a number of differences between the rulers of the Trucial Coast, Bahrain and Qatar, the latter two being in a long-running dispute over the Hawar Islands. While Dubai's ruler, Sheikh Rashid, had a strong connection to the Qatari ruling family, including the royal intermarriage of his daughter with the son of the Qatari emir,[73] the relationship between Abu Dhabi and Dubai (also cemented by intermarriage, Rashid's wife was a member of Abu Dhabi's ruling family[71]) was to endure the break-up of the talks with both Bahrain and Qatar. Overall, there were only four meetings between the nine rulers.[73] The last such meeting, which took place in Abu Dhabi, saw Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan elected as the first president of the federation. There were stalemates on numerous issues during the meeting, including the position of vice-president, the defense of the federation, and whether a constitution was required.[73]
Shortly after the meeting, the Political Agent in Abu Dhabi revealed the British government's interests in the outcome of the session, prompting Qatar to withdraw from the federation apparently over what it perceived as foreign interference in internal affairs.[74] The nine-emirate federation was consequently disbanded despite efforts by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Britain to reinvigorate discussions.[75] Bahrain became independent in August 1971, and Qatar in September 1971.
Declaration of the union 1971–1972
On 29 and 30 November 1971, a contingent of the Iranian army supported by the Iranian naval forces
When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, the Trucial States became independent sheikhdoms.
On 24 January 1972, the former deposed ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Saqr bin Sultan Al Qasimi, with an armed group supported by Ras Al Khaimah forced his way into the palace of Sharjah's ruler Sheikh Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi, occupied it, and demanded to be recognized as the sole ruler of Sharjah. Saqr had been deposed in 1965 by the British because he supported and received assistance from the Arab League, which Britain objected to at the time. He saw the opportunity to make a comeback as the British had terminated their commitments to the Trucial States. The incident led to UAE defence force mobilising for the first time. In a joint action this force and the Abu Dhabi defence force, together with popular resistance in Sharjah, managed to bring the situation under control and to cut the lines of supplies from Ras Al-Khaimah. After the palace was besieged, Ṣaqr surrendered with his group to the federal authorities. However, Sharjah's ruler Sheikh Khalid had already been killed in the palace. The incident was a direct attack on the authority of a member emirate of the UAE and the murder of a ruler and Supreme Council member and it constituted a test for the new union at a time when the wound caused by the occupation of the three islands had not yet healed. On 25 January 1972, the ruling family in Sharjah met to choose a new ruler for the emirate, and Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, the brother of the late ruler, was unanimously chosen to succeed him. The Supreme Council met in emergency session to consider the situation, and besides issuing an obituary of Sheikh Khālid, officially proclaimed the accession.[86]
The move to form a union took place at a time of unprecedented instability in the region, with a border dispute that resulted 22 deaths in Kalba, and a coup in Sharjah in January 1972. The then emir of Qatar was deposed by his cousin in February 1972.
21st century
2001–2003
After the
The UAE supported
2004–2008
On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh
In March 2006, the United States forced the state-owned
In December 2006, the UAE prepared for its first election to determine half the members of UAE's Federal National Council from 450 candidates. However, only 7000 Emirati citizens, less than 1% of the Emirati population, were given the right to vote in the election. The exact manner of selection was opaque. Notably, women were included in the electorate.[91]
2011-
In August 2011, the Middle East saw a number of pro-democratic uprisings, popularly known as the
On 25 September 2019, Hazza Al Mansouri launched aboard the Soyuz MS-15 spacecraft to the International Space Station, where he stayed for eight days, becoming the first Emirati in space.[94]
The first confirmed COVID-19 case in the United Arab Emirates was announced on 29 January 2020. It was the first country in the Middle East to report a confirmed case.[95]
The
In 2020, a UK court ruled that Sheikh
In early 2020s, the UAE began overhauling its criminal and civil laws. It legalized alcohol, stopped allowing lighter punishments for
The UAE moved its Friday-Saturday weekend to Saturday-Sunday in a landmark reform that came into force on January 1, 2022. The new system was rolled out across all government entities and most firms in the private sector followed suit. [105]
Museum of the Future was opened by the Government of the United Arab Emirates.[106] The choice of the date was officially made because 22 February 2022 is a palindrome date.[107] It is a landmark devoted to innovative and futuristic ideologies located in the Financial District of Dubai. It has three main elements: green hill, building, and void.[108]
On 14 May 2022, Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan was elected as the UAE's president after the death of Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan.[109]
The Emirates Lunar Mission was the first mission to the Moon from the UAE.[110] The mission by Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) sent a lunar rover named Rashid to the Moon aboard ispace's Hakuto-R Mission 1 lander.[111][112] It was launched on 11 December 2022 on a Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket,[113] and the rover attempted to land in Atlas crater.[114][115] On 25 April 2023, seconds before an attempted landing, communication with the Hakuto-R lander was lost.[116] The ispace team confirmed that the spacecraft had crashed into the Moon and was thus destroyed.[117][118]
See also
- History of Asia
- List of presidents of the United Arab Emirates
- List of prime ministers of the United Arab Emirates
- National Center for Documentation and Research
- Politics of the United Arab Emirates
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External links
- The 1820 General Maritime Treaty
- Timeline of the United Arab Emirates History from Bronze Age to present day
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