History of the Uyghur people
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The history of the Uyghur people extends over more than two millennia and can be divided into four distinct phases: Pre-Imperial (300 BC – AD 630), Imperial (AD 630–840), Idiqut (AD 840–1200), and Mongol (AD 1209–1600), with perhaps a fifth modern phase running from the death of the Silk Road in AD 1600 until the present.
In brief, Uyghur history is the story of a small nomadic tribe from the Altai Mountains competing with rival powers in Central Asia, including other Altaic tribes, Indo-European empires from the south and west, and Sino-Tibetan empires to the east. After the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in AD 840, ancient Uyghurs resettled from Mongolia to the Tarim Basin and northern parts of China. Ultimately, the Uyghurs became civil servants administering the Mongol Empire.
Contested history
The history of the Uyghur people, including their ethnic origin, is an issue of contention between Uyghur nationalists and Chinese authorities.
Some Uyghur nationalists claim that they are descended from the
Pre-Imperial
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (October 2020) |
Many historians trace the ancestry of modern Uyghur people to the Altaic pastoralists called
The Book of Sui lists about forty Tiele tribes scattered throughout North and Central Asia, one being 韋紇 Weihe (< MC *ɦʷɨi- ɦet), a transcription of underlying *Uyγur:[17][18][19]
The ancestors of the Tiele were the descend[a]nts of the Xiongnu. There were many clans among the Tiele, who were compactly distributed along the valley from the east of the Western Sea.
- In the North of the Tola [Duluo 獨洛] river, there were Boqut (Pugu, 僕骨, MC buk-kuot), Toŋra (Tongluo, 同羅, MC duŋ-lɑ), Uyγur (Weihe, 韋紇, MC ɦʷɨi- ɦet),[a] Bayirqu (Bayegu, 拔也古, MC bʷɑt-jja-kuo) and Fuluo (覆羅, MC phək-lɑ), whose leaders were all called Irkin (Sijin, 俟斤, MC ɖʐɨ-kɨn) by themselves. And there were other clans such as Mengchen (蒙陳, MC muŋ-ɖin), Turuhe (吐如紇, MC thuo-ɲjɷ-ɦet), Siqit (Sijie, 斯結, MC sie-ket),[b] Qun (Hun, 渾, MC ɦuon) and Huxue (斛薛, MC ɦuk-siɛt). These clans had a powerful army of almost 20,000 men.
- In the west of
Karashahr (Yanqi), and close to Aqtagh (Bai [White] Mountain), there were Qibi (契弊, CE khet-biɛi), Boluozhi (薄落職, CE bɑk-lɑk-tɕɨk), Yidie (乙咥, CE ʔˠit-tet), Supo (蘇婆, CE suo-bʷɑ), Nahe (那曷, CE nɑ-ɦɑt), Wuhuan (烏讙, CE ʔuo-hʷjɐn),[c] Hegu (紇骨, CE ɦet-kuot),[d] Yedie (也咥, CE jja-tet), Yunihuan (於尼讙, CE ʔuo-ɳi-hʷjɐn)[e]and so on. These clans had powerful army of almost 20 thousands men.- In the Southwest of
Altai Mountain (Jin Mountain), there were Xueyantuo(薛延陀, CE siɛt-jiɛn-dɑ), Dieleer (咥勒兒, CE tet-lək-ɲie), Shipan (十槃, CE ʥip-bʷan), Daqi (達契, CE thɑt-khet) and so on, which have army of more than 10,000 men.- In the north of Samarkand, close to Ade river, there were Hedie (訶咥, CE hɑ-tet), Hejie (曷嶻, CE ɦɑt-dzɑt),[f] Bohu (撥忽, CE pʷɑt-huot), Bigan (比干, CE pi-kɑn),[g] Juhai (具海, CE gju-həi), Hebixi (曷比悉, CE ɦɑt-pi-sit), Hecuosu (何嵯蘇, CE ɦɑ-ʣɑ-suo), Bayewei (拔也未, CE bʷɑt-jja-mʷɨi), Keda (渴達, CE khɑt-thɑt)[h] and so on, which have an army of more than 30,000 men.
- In the east and west of Deyihai (得嶷海), there were Sulujie (蘇路羯, CE suoluo-kjɐt), Sansuoyan (三索咽, CE sɑm-sɑk-ʔet), Miecu (蔑促, CE met-tshjuok), Longhu (隆忽, CE ljuŋ-huot) and so on, more than 8,000 men.
- In the east of Fulin (拂菻), there were Enqu (恩屈, CE ʔən-kjut), Alan (阿蘭,CE ʔɑ-lɑn),[i] Beirujiuli (北褥九離, CE pək-nuok-kɨu-lei), Fuwenhun (伏嗢昬, CE bɨu-ʔʷˠɛt-huon) and so on, almost 20,000 men.
- In the South of Northern Sea, there were Dubo (都波, CE tuo-pʷɑ) and so forth.
Although there were so many different names of the clans, they were all called Tiele as a whole. There was no ruler among them, and they belonged to the Eastern and Western Türks, separately. They lived in unsettled places, and moved along with the water and grass. They were good at shooting on horseback, and were fierce and cruel, especially greedy. They live on plundering. The clans close to the west do several kinds of cultivating, and breed more cattle and sheep than horses. Since the establishment of the Türk state, the Tiele help the Türks by participating in battles everywhere, and subdue all the groups in the North.
[...]
Their customs were mostly like those of the Türks. The differences were that the husband should stay in his wife's family, and could not go home until the birth of his children. Also, the dead were to be buried.
In the third year of Daye (607), the Tiele sent an envoy and tribute to the court, and never stopped contact from that year.
In AD 546, the Fufulo led the Tiele tribes in a struggle against the Türk tribe in the power vacuum left by the breakup of the Rouran state. As a result of this defeat, the Tiele were forced into servitude again. This incident marked the beginning of the historic Türk-Tiele animosity that plagued both
In AD 600,
In AD 611, the Uyghur, allied with
From AD 648–657, the Uyghurs, under Porun Ilteber (婆闰), worked as mercenaries for the Chinese in their annexation of the Tarim Basin. In AD 683, the Uyghur leader Dujiezhi was defeated by Göktürks and the Uyghur tribe moved to the
By AD 688, the Uyghurs were controlled again by the Göktürks. After a series of revolts coordinated with their Chinese allies, the Uyghurs emerged as the leaders of the Tokuz-Oguz and Tiele once again. In AD 744, the Uyghurs, with their
Uyghur Khaganate (AD 744–840)
The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from AD 744 to 840. It was administered from the imperial capital
Large numbers of
In AD 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by an alliance of Tang-dynasty China and the
Several laws enforcing racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by the Han Chinese during the Tang dynasty. In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict that forced Uyghurs in the capital to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. One of the reasons why the Chinese disliked Uyghurs was that they practiced usury.[36]
Uyghur kingdoms
Following the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, the Uyghur gave up Mongolia and dispersed into present-day Gansu and Xinjiang. In 843, Chinese forces watched over Uyghur remnants located in Shanxi province during a rebellion, until reinforcements arrived.[37] The Uyghur later founded two kingdoms:
Polities claimed to be Uyghur
Modern Uyghurs claim that the reign of a Kara-Khanid Khanate is a significant part of Uyghur culture and history. Kara-Khanids, or the Karakhans (Black Khans) Dynasty, was a state formed by a confederation of Karluks, Chigils, Yaghmas, and other Turkic tribes.[40] Some historians have argued that the Karakhanids were linked to the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate through the Yaghmas, a people associated with the Toquz Oghuz, although other historians disagree with this theory.[41] The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan (920–956 AD) converted to Islam in 934, and a mass conversion of the Karakhanids followed in 960. The first capital of the Karakhanids was established in the city of Balasagun in the Chu River Valley and later moved to Kashgar.
During the Kara-Khanid period, mosques, schools, bridges, and caravansarais were constructed in the cities. Kashgar,
After the rise of the
Most Uyghur inhabitants of the
Mongol period 1210–1760
The Uighur Idiqut, Barchukh, voluntarily submitted to
The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol ruling khanate controlled by
After the death of the Chagatayid ruler Qazan Khan in 1346, the Chagatai Khanate was divided into western (Transoxiana) and eastern (
Mogulistan
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2021) |
Kashgar historian Muhammad Imin Sadr Kashgari recorded Uyghurstan in his book Traces of Invasion (Asar al-futuh) in 1780. Power in the western half devolved into the hands of several tribal leaders, most notably the
.Tughlugh Timur was unable to completely subjugate the tribal rulers. After his death in 1363, the Moghuls left Transoxiana, and the Qara'unas' leader Amir Husayn took control of Transoxiana. Tīmur-e Lang (Timur the Lame), or
By 1369, the western half (Transoxiana and further west) of the Chagatai Khanate had been conquered by Tamerlane in his attempt to reconstruct the Mongol Empire. The eastern half, mostly under what is now Xinjiang, remained under Chagatai princes that were at time allied or at war with Timurid princes. Until the 17th century, all the remaining Chagatai domains fell under the theocratic regime of Uyghur
Both the Tarim Basin as well as Transoxiana (in modern-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) became known as Moghulistan or Mughalistan, after the ruling class of Chagatay and Timurid states descended from the "Moghol" tribe of Doghlat. They were Islamicized and Turkified in language. This Moghol Timurid ruling class established the Timurid rule on the Indian Subcontinent known as the Mughal Empire.
In the eastern portion of the
The Eastern Chagatai Khanate was marked by instability and internecine warfare, with
The Khojijans were originally the
During the
The
The Zhengde Emperor was noted for having a Uighur woman as one of his favorite
The invasion of the
Occupation and control by the Qing dynasty 1760s–1860s
The Qing dynasty conquered Moghulistan in the 18th century.[57] It invaded Dzungaria in 1759 and dominated it until 1864. The territory was renamed Xinjiang soon after the Qing began their domination of the Dzungar people. "Historians estimate that a million people were slaughtered and the land so devastated that it took a generation for it to recover".[58]
A widespread
The Han Hui (currently known as
The Chinese did not distinguish between the Turki Uyghurs and the Central Asian invaders under Jahangir, killing Turks who tried to bribe Chinese citizens and sought refuge with them. Many Chinese and Chinese Muslims (Dungan) had been killed by Jahangir, so they were eager for revenge.[61]
The Uyghur Muslim
Yettishar
During the
Uyghur Muslim forces under
In the late 1870s, the Qing decided to reconquer Xinjiang, under the leadership of General Zuo Zongtang. As Zuo Zongtang moved into Xinjiang to crush the Muslim rebels under Yaqub Beg, he was joined by Dungan Khufiyya Sufi General Ma Anliang and his forces, which were composed entirely of Muslim Dungan people. Ma Anliang and his Dungan troops fought alongside Zuo Zongtang to attack the Muslim rebel forces.[71]
On 18 December 1877, the army of the Qing entered Kashgar, bringing the state to an end.[72]
Qing reconquest
After this invasion, East Turkestan was renamed "Xinjiang", or "Sinkiang", which itself means "New Dominion" or "New Territory", but should really be known as "Old Territory Newly Returned" (旧疆新归) and was shortened to "Xinjiang" (新疆) in Chinese, by the Qing empire on 18 November 1884.
Meanwhile, the "Great Game" between Russia and Britain was underway in Central Asia, with former ethnic cultures from
Throughout the Qing dynasty, the sedentary Uyghur inhabitants of the oases around the Tarim, speaking
Republican era 1910–1949
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2021) |
The Uyghur identified themselves to each other by their oasis, as 'Keriyanese', 'Khotanese', or 'Kashgari'. The Soviets met with the Uyghur in 1921 during a meeting of Turkic leaders in Tashkent. This meeting established the Revolutionary Uyghur Union (Inqilawi Uyghur Itipaqi), a communist nationalist organization that opened underground sections in principal cities of Kashgaria and was active until 1926, when the Soviets recognized the post-Qing Sinkiang Government and concluded trade agreements with it.
By 1920, Uyghur nationalism had become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin (杨增新), who controlled Siankiang. Turpan poet Abdulhaliq, having spent his early years in Semipalatinsk (modern Semey) and the Jadid intellectual centres in Uzbekistan, returned to Sinkiang with a pen name that he later styled as a surname: "Uyghur". He wrote the nationalist poem Oyghan, which opened with the line "Ey pekir Uyghur, oyghan!" (Hey poor Uyghur, wake up!) He was later martyred by the Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai in Turpan in March 1933 for inciting Uyghur nationalist sentiments through his works.
There were several Uyghur factions during Yang's rule in Xinjiang, which did not intermarry and were fierce rivals. The Qarataghlik Uyghurs were content to live under Chinese rule, while the Agtachlik Uyghurs were hostile to Chinese rule.[73]
Uyghur independence activists staged several uprisings against post-Qing and Sheng-
The Second East Turkistan Republic existed from 1944 to 1949 in what is now Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. The Ili Rebellion was fought by the Kuomintang against the Second East Turkestan Republic, the Soviet Union, and the Mongolian People's Republic.
1949–present
In 1949, after the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang) lost the civil war in China, the
The name Xinjiang was changed to
In 2004, Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples in exile established the East Turkistan Government in Exile, claiming that China occupied East Turkistan.[76]
A committee of independent experts with ties to the United Nations[77] claimed to have credible reports that China holds millions of Uyghurs in secret camps,[78] and many international media reports have said that as many as one million people are being held in Xinjiang internment camps.[79][80][81][82][83][84]
On 24 October 2018, the BBC released details of an extensive investigation into China's "hidden camps" and the extent to which the People's Republic goes to maintain so-called "correct thought".[85]
See also
Notes
- ^ Chronological names: Yuanhe (袁纥), Wuhu (乌护), Wuhe (乌纥), Weihe (韦纥), Huihe (回纥), Huihu (回鹘).
- ^ 烏護 Wuhu in Beishi Vol. 99
- ^ Chronological names: Gekun (鬲昆), Jiankun (坚昆), Jiegu (结骨), Qigu (契骨), Hegu (纥骨), Hugu (护骨), Hejiesi (纥扢斯), Xiajiasi (黠戛斯).
- ^ 烏尼護 Wunihu in Beishi, Vol. 99
- ^ Hejie 曷截 in Beishi, Vol. 99
- ^ Biqian 比千 in Beishi, vol. 99
- ^ 謁達 Yeda in Beishi Vol. 99
- ^ Non-Turkic, Iranian-speaking people; according to Lee & Kuang (2017) "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples", Inner Asia 19. p. 201 of 197-239
- ^ Tang Huiyao manuscript has 骨崙屋骨恐 Gulunwugukong; Ulrich Theobald (2012) amended 恐 (kong) to 思 (si) and proposed that 屋骨思 be transcribed as Oğuz[25]
References
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自此,塔里木盆地周围地区受高昌回鹘王国和喀喇汗王朝统治,当地的居民和西迁后的回鹘互相融合,这就为后来维吾尔族的形成奠定了基础。
- ^ Arik, Kagan (2008). Austin, Peter (ed.). One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost (illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520255609.
- ISBN 0-8223-1521-1. "The bulk of the Uyghurs, and undoubtedly with them a small number of Türküt, migrated southwest into the Tarim Basin; fewer groups went southward into the immediate neighborhood of ambivalent China to the provinces of Kan-Su and Ts'ing-Hai (Kökö-nōr), where their descendants still live on as the Sary Yögur (Yellow Uyghurs) and Salar."
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