History of cities
Towns and
Origins
There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities. Some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces.
Smaller human settlements (such as villages) pre-date cities by many thousands of years. Before permanent settlement in cities, there were also large temporary settlements used for religious purposes or as a stopping place for nomadic people.
The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development.[2] Whether farming immigrants replaced foragers or foragers began farming is not clear. The increased food production per unit of land supported higher population density and more city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up this position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form.[3]
According to
In his book City Economics, Brendan O'Flaherty asserts "Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages".
Similarly, "Are Cities Dying?", a paper by Harvard economist
Childe’s ten criteria
The first true towns are sometimes considered large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers of the surrounding area, but began to take on specialized occupations, and where trade, food storage and power were centralized. In 1950
- Size and density of the population should be above normal.
- Differentiation of the population. Not all residents grow their own food, leading to specialists.
- Payment of taxes to a deity or king.
- Monumental public buildings.
- Those not producing their own food are supported by the king.
- Systems of recording and practical science.
- A system of writing.
- Development of symbolic art.
- Trade and import of raw materials.
- Specialist craftsmen from outside the kin-group.
This categorisation is descriptive, and it is used as a general touchstone when considering ancient cities, although not all have each of its characteristics.
Ancient times
The more complex human societies, called the
The growth of the population of ancient civilizations, the formation of ancient empires concentrating political power, and the growth in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greater capital cities and centres of commerce and industry, with
The roster of early urban traditions is notable for its diversity. Excavations at early urban sites show that some cities were sparsely populated political capitals, others were trade centers, and still other cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense populations, whereas others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Theories that attempt to explain ancient urbanism by a single factor, such as economic benefit, fail to capture the range of variation documented by archaeologists.[12]
Mediterranean and Mesopotamia
The earliest known city is Çatalhöyük, a settlement of some 10,000 people in southern Anatolia that existed from approximately 7400 BCE to 5200 BCE. Hunting, agriculture and animal domestication all played a role in the society of Çatalhöyük.
Eridu was one of the earliest cities (5400 BCE – 600 BCE), and located in southern modern day Iraq.
Ancient Mesopotamia, the area of the Tigris and Euphrates within modern day Iraq and Syria, was home to numerous cities by the third millennium BCE. These cities formed the basis of the Sumerian and subsequent cultures.[13] Cities such as Jericho, Uruk, Ur, Nineveh, and Babylon, made legendary by the Bible, have been located and excavated, while others such as Damascus and Jerusalem have been continuously populated.
The
Beginning in the early first millennium, independent
The
Asia
The
Sub-Saharan Africa
Agriculture was practiced in
Americas
In the
Teotihuacan, flourishing from 200 BCE to 750 CE, was the largest American city of the pre-Columbian era, possibly reaching a population of 125,000 in 200 CE. The city's grid plan originated with the "Avenue of the Dead", connecting the Temple of the Feathered Serpent and the Pyramid of the Moon.[27] Beyond its ceremonial center the city featured religious buildings (23 temple complexes) and myriad workshops. Although its religious system was clearly expansive and significant, details of its political and economic functioning remain matters of speculation.[29]
Middle Ages
In the
From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million.[30][31] Following the Byzantine–Ottoman wars and other conflicts, the Ottoman Empire gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including Constantinople in 1453.
During the
By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy
Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of
In the first millennium CE, an urban tradition developed in the Khmer region of Cambodia, where Angkor grew into one of the largest cities (in area) of the world.[37] The closest rival to Angkor, the Mayan city of Tikal in Guatemala, was between 100 and 150 square kilometres (39 and 58 sq mi) in total size.[38] Although its population remains a topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systems in the Angkor area may have supported up to one million people.[39]
While the
The Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, in present-day Mexico, had an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000 when the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in 1519. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories, and were bound to several laws about administration, finances and urbanism.
Most towns remained small, so that in 1500 only some two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants. As late as 1700, there were fewer than forty, a figure that rose to 300 in 1900.
Industrial Revolution
The
Industrialized cities became deadly places to live, due to health problems resulting from
Infrastructure
The 19th century saw the rise of
Street lights were uncommon until gas lighting became widespread in Europe in the early 19th century. Fuel gas was also used for heating and cooking. From the 1880s, electrification began, making electricity the main energy medium in cities until present day.
Modern water supply networks began to expand during the 19th century.
20th century
Growth of cities continued through the twentieth century and increased dramatically in the
Urban planning became widespread and professionalized. At the turn of the century, the "garden city" model became the icon of a self-contained, comprehensively designed, residential and commercial settlement. Professional urban planners appeared in large numbers, not only to design cities, but to provide technical expertise to their administration.
During the 20th century,
In the second half of the twentieth century,
21st century
There is a debate about whether
- Gujarat International Finance Tec-City, India
- Nano City, India
- Putrajaya, Malaysia
- Bonifacio Global City, Philippines
- King Abdullah Economic City, Saudi Arabia
- Sejong City, South Korea
- Songdo International Business District, South Korea
- Dubai Waterfront, United Arab Emirates
- Dubai World Central, United Arab Emirates
- Masdar City, United Arab Emirates
See also
Notes
- ^ Keith Hopkins estimates that ancient Rome had a population of about a million people by the end of the 1st century BC,[18] after growing continually during the 3rd, 2nd, and 1st centuries BC, making it the largest city in the world at the time.[19] Alexandria's population was also close to Rome's population at around the same time, the historian Rostovtzeff estimates a total population close to a million based on a census dated from 32 AD that counted 180,000 adult male citizens in Alexandria.[20]
- ^ George Modelski considers medieval Baghdad, with an estimated population of 1.2 million at its peak, the largest city before 19th century London and the first with a population of over one million.[32] Others estimate that Baghdad's population may have been as large as 2 million in the 9th century.[33]
References
- .
- ^ (Bairoch 1988, pp. 3–4)
- ^ Bassett, California
- ^ (Pacione 2001, p. 16)
- ^ a b (Bairoch 1988, p. 13)
- ^ (Jacobs 1969, p. 23)
- ^ (O'Flaherty 2005, p. 12)
- ^ (O'Flaherty 2005, pp. 572–573)
- S2CID 39517784.
- ISBN 978-1-285-98299-1. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
- ISBN 9781577661948
- ^ Smith 2002
- ^ Adams (1981), p. 2. "Southern Mesopotamia was a land of cities. It became one precociously, before the end of the fourth millennium B.C. Urban traditions remained strong and virtually continuous through the vicissitudes of conquest, internal upheaval accompanied by widespread economic breakdown, and massive linguistic and population replacement. The symbolic and material content of civilization obviously changed, but its cultural ambience remained tied to cities."
- ^ Georges Perrot & Charles Chipiez, History of Art in Phœnicia and Its Dependences, Vol. 1; translated from French to English and edited by Walter Armstrong; London: Chapman and Hall, 1885; p. 67.
- ISBN 0-8166-2880-7.
- ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2.
- ISBN 0-19-504983-7, p.73-76
- ISBN 978-2-7605-2209-1.
- ^ On The Political Economy of the Roman Empire, Keith Hopkins
- ^ Rostovtzeff 1941: 1138–39
- ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 41–42. "Rome created an elaborate urban system. Roman colonies were organized as a means of securing Roman territory. The first thing that Romans did when they conquered new territories was to establish cities."
- ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press, Karachi and New York.
- ^ Southall (1998), pp. 38–43.
- ^ McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. "Early Urban Configurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities and Landscapes of Power," Chapter 5.
- ISBN 1-55876-303-1
- ^ a b René Millon, cited in Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 37–38. "The regularity of Teotihuacán began with the main street, the "Street of the Dead," which stretched from the Great Compound and the Temple of Quetzacoatal to another great pyramid, the Pyramid of the Moon. Every other major street, and even the river running through the city, was laid out either parallel or perpendicular to this grand avenue."
- ^ Shady Solís, Ruth Martha (1997). La ciudad sagrada de Caral-Supe en los albores de la civilización en el Perú (in Spanish). Lima: UNMSM, Fondo Editorial. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
- ^ Southall (1998), 48–50.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4051-9833-2. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
- ^ a b Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). "Writing the Economic History of Byzantium". In Angeliki E. Laiou (ed.). The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 130–131.
- ISBN 0-9676230-1-4. See also Evolutionary World Politics Homepage Archived May 20, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
- Taylor and Francis. p. 116.
- ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 43. "Capitals like Córdoba and Cairo had populations of about 500,000; Baghdad probably had a population of more than 1 million. This urban heritage would continue despite the conquests of the Seljuk Turks and the later Crusades. China, the longest standing civilization, was in the midst of a golden age as the Tang dynasty gave way—after a short period of fragmentation—to the Song dynasty. This dynasty ruled two of the most impressive cities on the planet, Xian and Hangzhou. / In contrast, poor Western Europe had not recovered from the sacking of Rome and the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire. For more than five centuries a steady process of deurbanization—whereby the population living in cities and the number of cities declined precipitously—had converted a prosperous landscape into a scary wilderness, overrun with bandits, warlords, and rude settlements."
- ^ a b Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 52. "Many cities were constructed with fortifications, or bastides, in mind. These fortifications would often take the form of a regular geometric shape, with towers laid out a[t] regular intervals, and gates allowing entrance into the city itself. The streets within the Bastide city were likewise regularly placed, intended to connect logically to each other, to the central market square, and to the town gates. The placement and pattern of streets was also intended to facilitate the movement of armaments and men to the city defenses. Building took place after the layout had been imposed, creating a more orderly landscape."
- ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 47–50.
- ^ Evans et al., A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, August 23, 2007.
- ^ "Map reveals ancient urban sprawl," BBC News, 14 August 2007.
- ^ Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city, The Independent, August 15, 2007
- ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 53–54. "England was clearly at the center of these changes. London became the first truly global city by placing itself within the new global economy. English colonialism in North America, the Caribbean, South Asia, and later Africa and China helped to further fatten the wallets of many of its merchants. These colonies would later provide many of the raw materials for industrial production. England's hinterland was no longer confined to a portion of the world; it effectively became a global hinterland."
- ^ Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 54–55.
- ^ "Mayday 23: World Population Becomes More Urban Than Rural". News.ncsu.edu. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
- ISBN 0-8020-8528-8. "It is now clear that the deindustrialization thesis is part myth and part fact. Robert Z. Lawrence, for example, uses aggregate economic data to show that manufacturing employment in the United States did not decline but actually increased from 16.8 million in 1960, to 20.1 million in 1973, and 20.3 million in 1980. However, manufacturing employment was in relative decline. Barry Bluestone noted that manufacturing represented a decreasing proportion of the U.S. labour force, from 26.2 per cent in 1973 to 22.1 per cent in 1980. Studies in Canada have likewise shown that manufacturing employment was only in relative decline during these years. Yet mills and factories did close, and towns and cities lost their industries. John Cumbler submitted that 'depressions do not manifest themselves only at moments of national economic collapse' such as in the 1930s, but 'also recur in scattered sites across the nation in regions, in industries, and in communities.'"
- ^ James Xiaohe Zhang, "Rapid urbanization in China and its impact on the world economy"; 16th Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, "New Challenges for Global Trade in a Rapidly Changing World", Shanhai Institute of Foreign Trade, June 12–14, 2013.
- ^ Ian Johnson, "China’s Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities"; New York Times, 15 June 2013.
- ^ Castells, M. (ed) (2004). The network society: a cross-cultural perspective. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)
- ^ Flew, T. (2008). New media: an introduction, 3rd edn, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press
- ^ Harford, T. (2008) The Logic of Life. London: Little, Brown.
Bibliography
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- O'Flaherty, Brendan (2005). City Economics. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01918-8.
- Pacione, Michael (2001). The City: Critical Concepts in The Social Sciences. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-25270-6.
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