History of wine

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This article is about wine produced from
Non-grape wine.
See also: Fermentation in food processing § Brewing and winemaking

Dionysos
, god of wine
Wine boy at a Greek symposium

The oldest evidence of ancient wine production has been found in Georgia from c. 6000 BC (the earliest known traces of grape wine),[1][2] Iran from c. 5000 BC,[3] Greece from c. 4500 BC,[4][5] Armenia from c. 4100 BC (large-scale production),[6][7][8][9][10][11] and Sicily from c. 4000 BC.[12] The earliest evidence of fermented alcoholic beverage of rice, honey and fruit, sometimes compared to wine, is claimed in China (c. 7000 BC).[13][14][15]

The

medicinal and industrial purposes such as the production of perfume.[19]

Wine production and consumption increased, burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part of European expansion. Despite the devastating 1887 phylloxera
louse infestation, modern science and technology adapted and industrial wine production and wine consumption now occur throughout the world.

Prehistory

olive
growing have been found.

Vine domestication

The origins of wine predate

grapevines. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, and then began collecting them. After a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10,000–8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary style of living, which led to agriculture and wine domestication.[20]

Georgian Kvevri, a jar dated to the 6th millennium BC found at the Shulaveri site (Georgian National Museum).

Wild grapes grow in the

V. vinifera) would have become easier following the development of pottery during the later Neolithic
, c. 11,000 BC. The earliest discovered evidence, however, dates from several millennia later.

Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. Spanish missionaries took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to Baja California in the 18th. With the flood of European immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries, modern industries based on imported V. vinifera grapes were developed. The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains. In California the centre of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino.[21]

Wine fermentation

The earliest archaeological evidence of wine fermentation found has been at sites in

pine resin to more effectively seal and preserve the wine and is the earliest firm evidence of wine production to date.[33][27][28][29][30] Production spread to other sites in Greater Iran and Greek Macedonia by c. 4500 BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes.[34]

Entrance to the Areni-1 cave in southern Armenia near the town of Areni where a winery dated to c. 4100 BC was found in 2007.

The oldest-known

Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups.[35][36][37][38] Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier."[38][39]

The seeds were from Vitis vinifera, a grape still used to make wine.[30] The cave remains date to about 4000 BC. This is 900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains, found in Egyptian tombs.[40][41]

The fame of

Apadana Palace, in Persepolis
, demonstrate soldiers of subjected nations by the Persian Empire bringing gifts to the Persian king.

Domesticated grapes were abundant in the Near East from the beginning of the early Bronze Age, starting in 3200 BC. There is also increasingly abundant evidence for winemaking in Sumer and Egypt in the 3rd millennium BC.[42]

Legends of discovery

There are many

etiological myths
told about the first cultivation of the grapevine and fermentation of wine.

The Biblical Book of Genesis first mentions the production of wine by Noah following the Great Flood.

Mount Nysa but had him teach the practice to the peoples of central Anatolia
. Because of this, he was rewarded to become a god of wine.

In

King Jamshid banished a lady of his harem, causing her to become despondent and contemplate suicide. Going to the king's warehouse, the woman sought out a jar marked "poison" containing the remnants of the grapes that had spoiled and were now deemed undrinkable. After drinking the fermented wine, she found her spirits lifted. She took her discovery to the king, who became so enamored of his new drink that he not only accepted the woman back but also decreed that all grapes grown in Persepolis would be devoted to winemaking.[43]

Antiquity

Ancient China

Main articles:
History of wine in China

According to the latest research scholars stated: "Following the definition of the CNCCEF, China has been viewed as "New New World" in the world wine map, despite the fact that grape growing and wine making in China date back to between 7000BC and 9000BC. Winemaking technology and wine culture are rooted in Chinese history and the definition of "New New World" is a misnomer that imparts a Euro centric bias onto wine history and ignores fact."[13] Furthermore, the history of Chinese grape wine has been confirmed and proven to date back 9000 years (7000 BC),[13][14][15][31] including "the earliest attested use" of wild grapes in wine as well as "earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world", according to adjunct professor of Anthropology Patrick McGovern, the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia.[31] Professor McGovern continued: "The Jiahu discovery illustrates how you should never give up hope in finding chemical evidence for a fermented beverage from the Palaeolithic period. Research very often has big surprises in store. You might think, as I did too, that the grape wines of Hajji Firuz, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia would prove to be the earliest alcoholic beverages in the world, coming from the so-called "Cradle of Civilization" in the Near East as they do. But then I was invited to go to China on the other side of Asia, and came back with samples that proved to be even earlier–from around 7000 BC."[31] Additionally, Professor Hames' research stated: "The earliest wine, or fermented liquor, came from China, predating Middle Eastern alcohol by a few thousand years. Archeologists have found pottery shards showing remnants of rice and grape wine dating back to 7000 BC in Jiahu village in Henan province."[15]

Archaeologists have discovered production from native "mountain grapes" like

ABV and considered quite distinct from grape wine (葡萄酒
) within China.

During the 2nd century BC,

empire: Dayuan, Bactria, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. These had brought viticulture into Central Asia and trade permitted the first wine produced from V. vinifera grapes to be introduced to China.[45][47][48]

Wine was imported again when trade with the west was restored under the

gentry.[48] Marco Polo's 14th-century account noted the continuing preference for rice wines continuing in Yuan China.[48]

Ancient Egypt

Grape cultivation, winemaking, and commerce in ancient Egypt c. 1500 BC

Wine played an important role in

Old Kingdom
period. Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced in the delta vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five distinct wines, probably all produced in the Delta, constituted a canonical set of provisions for the afterlife.

Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly

Psammetichus I, the pharaohs did not drink wine nor offer it to the gods "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung". This was considered to be the reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their forebears".[50]

Residue from five clay amphoras in Tutankhamun's tomb, however, have been shown to be that of white wine, so it was at least available to the Egyptians through trade if not produced domestically.[51]

Ancient Levant

Main articles: Phoenicians and wine, Lebanese wine, and Israeli wine

In ancient times, the Levant region has played a vital role in the domain of winemaking. Archaeological findings, including charred grape seeds and occasionally intact berries or raisins, have been unearthed in numerous prehistoric and historic sites across Southwest Asia. Having deep historical roots dating back to at least the Bronze Age, winemaking in the Levant retained its importance as a significant regional industry until the decline of Byzantine rule in the 7th century CE. This prolonged history of winemaking significantly enriched the cultural and economic tapestry of ancient societies in the region, giving rise to numerous legends and beliefs intertwined with its consumption in the Mediterranean and Near East.[52]

The ancient

raisin wine that later became popular in Rome
as well.

Wine held a significant and favored role within ancient Israelite cuisine, serving not only as a dietary staple but also as a crucial element of Israelite cultural and religious practices. In ancient Israel, wine found its place in both everyday use and ceremonial rituals such as sacrificial libations.[53] These traditions became an integral part of Jewish customs and celebrations, upholding the enduring importance of wine within Judaism to this very day. The abundancy of archeological remnants of facilities dedicated to the production of wine (at ancient Gibeon, for example), coupled with detailed depictions of vineyard establishment and grape varieties within the Hebrew Bible,[53][54] underscore the prominence of wine as the primary alcoholic choice for the ancient Israelites. Within the Hebrew language, a multitude of terms emerged relating to vines and the various stages of winemaking.[55] Winemaking also included the incorporation of spices, honey, herbs, and other ingredients. Following the fermentation process, the wine was meticulously stored in amphorae, often lined with protective resin coatings to ensure preservation. Jewish winemaking evolved during the Hellenistic period, with dried grapes producing sweeter, higher alcohol content wine that required dilution with water for consumption.[56]

During Late Antiquity, when the Levant was under Byzantine control, the region established itself as a renowned center for winemaking. Ashkelon and Gaza, two ancient port cities in modern-day Israel and Gaza Strip, rose to prominence as important trade centers, facilitating extensive wine exports throughout the Byzantine Empire. The writings of 4th-century CE priest Jerome vividly depicted the Holy Land's landscape adorned with sprawling vineyards. The wines of this region, as described by the 6th-century CE poet Corippus, stood out for their attributes of being white, light, and sweet.[57]

In the

Arabian peninsula, wine was traded by Aramaic merchants, as the climate was not well-suited to the growing of vines. Many other types of fermented drinks, however, were produced in the 5th and 6th centuries, including date and honey wines
.

Ancient Greece

Main article: Ancient Greece and wine
Dionysus in a vineyard; amphora dated to the late 6th century BC

Much of modern wine culture derives from the practices of the ancient Greeks. The vine preceded both the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures.[16][34] Many of the grapes grown in modern Greece are grown there exclusively and are similar or identical to the varieties grown in ancient times. Indeed, the most popular modern Greek wine, a strongly aromatic white called retsina, is thought to be a carryover from the ancient practice of lining the wine jugs with tree resin, imparting a distinct flavor to the drink.

The "Feast of the Wine" (Me-tu-wo Ne-wo) was a festival in Mycenaean Greece celebrating the "Month of the New Wine".[58][59][60] Several ancient sources, such as the Roman Pliny the Elder, describe the ancient Greek method of using partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation and some type of lime after, in order to reduce the acidity of the wine. The Greek Theophrastus provides the oldest known description of this aspect of Greek winemaking.[61][62]

In Homeric mythology, wine is usually served in "mixing bowls" rather than consumed in an undiluted state. Dionysus, the Greek god of revelry and wine—frequently referred to in the works of Homer and Aesop—was sometimes given the epithet Acratophorus, "giver of unmixed wine".[63][64] Homer frequently refers to the "wine-dark sea" (οἶνωψ πόντος, oīnōps póntos): in lack of a name for the color blue, the Greeks would simply refer to red wine's color.

The earliest reference to a named wine is from the 7th-century BC lyrical poet

Lemnió varietal, a red wine with a bouquet of oregano and thyme
. If so, this makes Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation.

For Greece, alcohol such as wine had not fully developed into the rich 'cash crop' that it would eventually become toward the peak of its reign. However, as the emphasis of viticulture increased with economic demand so did the consumption of alcohol during the years to come. The Greeks embraced the production aspect as a way to expand and create economic growth throughout the region. Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout the

Mediterranean, as amphoras with Greek styling and art have been found throughout the area. The Greeks may have even been involved in the first appearance of wine in ancient Egypt.[68] They introduced the V. vinifera vine to[69] and made wine in their numerous colonies in modern-day Italy,[70] Sicily,[71] southern France,[72] and Spain.[69]

Ancient Persia

Persians (in particular, those of Pontus) writes that they were "very fond" of wine and drank it in large quantities.[73]

Ancient Thrace

Main article: Thracians

The works of Homer, Herodotus and other historians of Ancient Greece refer to the ancient Thracians' love for winemaking and consumption,[74] as early as 6000 years ago.[75] the Thracians are considered the first to worshipp the god of wine called Dionysus in Greek or Zagreus in Thracian. Later this cult reached Ancient Greece.[76][77] Some consider Thrace (modern day Bulgaria) as the motherland of wine culture.[78]

Roman Empire

Main article: Ancient Rome and wine
Shipping wine in Roman Gaul: amphoras (top) were the traditional Mediterranean vessels, but the Gauls introduced the use of barrels.

The

Probus.[80]
)

Satyr working at a wine press of wicker-work mats (1st century AD relief).

Winemaking technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire, though technologies from the

Faustian Falernian from the center (named for its one-time owner Faustus Cornelius Sulla, son of the dictator), and generic Falernian from the lower slopes and plain. The esteemed vintages grew in value as they aged, and each region produced different varieties as well: dry, sweet, and light. Other famous wines were the sweet Alban from the Alban Hills and the Caecuban beloved by Horace and extirpated by Nero. Pliny cautioned that such 'first-growth' wines not be smoked in a fumarium like lesser vintages.[83] Pliny and others also named Vinum Hadrianum as one of the most rated wines, along with Praetutian from Ancona on the Adriatic, Mamertine from Messina in Sicily, Rhaetic from Verona, and a few others.[84]

Wine, perhaps mixed with herbs and minerals, was assumed to serve medicinal purposes. During Roman times, the upper classes might dissolve

Roman Catholic Church as the only stable social structure. Through the Church, grape growing and winemaking technology, essential for the Mass, were preserved.[86]

Over the course of the later Empire, wine production gradually shifted to the east as Roman infrastructure and influence in the western regions gradually diminished. Production in Asia Minor, the Aegean and the Near East flourished through Late Antiquity and the Byzantine era.[18]

The oldest surviving bottle still containing liquid wine, the Speyer wine bottle, belonged to a Roman nobleman and it is dated at 325 or 350 AD.[87][88]

Medieval period

Medieval Middle East

Main article:
Wine in the Middle East
See also: Phoenicians and wine and Lebanese wine


The advent of

Fatimid and Mamluk governments, produced wine for sacramental and medicinal use, and traded wine throughout the Eastern Mediterranean
.

Christian monasteries in the

Muslim alchemists allowed for the production of relatively pure ethanol, which was used in the perfume industry. Wine was also for the first time distilled into brandy
during this period.

In the Levant, the Muslim conquest of the Levant suppressed winemaking after centuries of regional prominence, and the 13th-century Mamluk conquest resulted in its complete prohibition.[52]

Monastic cellarer tasting wine, from Li Livres dou Santé (French manuscript, late 13th century)

Medieval Europe

See also: History of Bordeaux wine

It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the [Christian medieval]

halachically exempted from using [kosher] red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them.

— Pesach: What We Eat and Why We Eat It, Project Genesis[90]

In the

Burgundy, and Bordeaux in France, and in the Rheingau and Franconia in Germany. In 1435 Count John IV of Katzenelnbogen, a wealthy member of the high nobility of the Holy Roman Empire from near Frankfurt, was the first to plant Riesling, the most important German grape. The nearby winemaking monks made it into an industry, producing enough wine to ship all over Europe for secular use. Portugal, a country with one of the oldest wine traditions, developed the first wine appellation
system in the world.

A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for meads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of honey. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and thus drunk quite young. To offset the effects of heavy alcohol-consumption, wine was frequently watered down at a ratio of four or five parts water to one of wine.

One medieval application of wine was the use of snake-stones (banded agate resembling the figural rings on a snake) dissolved in wine as a remedy for snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations.[62]

vintner
.

Medieval names for types of wine included "pimentum"[92] and "

malmsey
".

Modern era

Spread and development in the Americas

See also: New World wine

European grape varieties were first brought to what is now Mexico by the first Spanish

missions, one variety came to be known as the Mission grape
and is still planted today in small amounts. Succeeding waves of immigrants imported French, Italian and German grapes, although wine from those native to the Americas (whose flavors can be distinctly different) is also produced. Mexico became the most important wine producer starting in the 16th century, to the extent that its output began to affect Spanish commercial production. In this competitive climate, the Spanish king sent an executive order to halt Mexico's production of wines and the planting of vineyards.

During the devastating phylloxera blight in late 19th-century Europe, it was found that Native American vines were immune to the pest.

French-American hybrid
grapes were developed and saw some use in Europe, but more important was the practice of grafting European grapevines to American rootstocks to protect vineyards from the insect. The practice continues to this day wherever phylloxera is present.

Today, wine in the Americas is often associated with

Carmenère
(both from France) are well-known examples.

Until the latter half of the 20th century, American wine was generally viewed as inferior to that of Europe. However, with the surprisingly favorable American showing at the Paris Wine tasting of 1976, New World wine began to garner respect in the land of wine's origins.

Developments in Europe

Main article: Great French Wine Blight

In the late 19th century, the

Charentais soil, which was previously covered with vines. Cuvées were also standardized, important in creating certain wines as they are known today; Champagne and Bordeaux finally achieved the grape mixes that now define them. In the Balkans, where phylloxera had had little impact, the local varieties survived. However, the uneven transition from Ottoman rule has meant only gradual transformation in many vineyards. It is only in recent times that local varieties have gained recognition beyond "mass-market" wines like retsina
.

Australia, New Zealand and South Africa

See also: History of South African wine and Australian wine § History

In the context of wine, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers. Wine production began in the Cape Province of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia's First Fleet (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption, and South Africa exported to the Kings of Europe. However, with the increase in mechanization and scientific advances in winemaking, these countries became known for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century.

East Asia

In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was Japanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.[93] The earliest wine brewing companies in Japan include Suntory and Mercian.

See also

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  92. ^ Langland, William (1885). Skeat, Walter William (ed.). The Vision of William Concerning Piers Plowman: Together with Vita de Dowel, Dobet, Et Dobest, and Richard the Redeles. Early English Text Society (Series).: Original series: 67. London: N. Trübner & Company. p. 433. Retrieved 4 April 2024. Pigmentum, or pimentum, wine spiced, or mingled with honey, called in French piment, was formerly in high estimation.
  93. ISBN 978-1784724030
    .

Further reading
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