Holocaust trains

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The Holocaust trains
Polish Jews being loaded onto trains at Umschlagplatz of the Warsaw Ghetto, 1942. The site is preserved today as a Polish national monument.
Operation
Period1941–1944
LocationNazi Germany, German-occupied Europe, Axis countries in Europe
Prisoner victims
DestinationTransit ghettos, Nazi concentration camps, forced labour and extermination camps
General map of deportation routes and camps

Holocaust trains were

its allies, for the purpose of forcible deportation of the Jews, as well as other victims of the Holocaust, to the Nazi concentration, forced labour, and extermination camps.[1][2]

The speed at which people targeted in the "

Nazi ghettos to extermination camps. The most modern accurate numbers on the scale of the "Final Solution" still rely partly on shipping records of the German railways.[3][4]

Pre-war

The first mass deportation of Jews from Nazi Germany, the

Polenaktion, occurred in October 1938. It was the forcible eviction of German Jews with Polish citizenship fuelled by the Kristallnacht. Approximately 30,000 Jews were rounded up and sent via rail to refugee camps.[5]

The role of railways in the Final Solution

Jews are deported from Würzburg, 25 April 1942. Deportation occurred in public and was witnessed by many Germans.[6]
Auschwitz-Birkenau was built in 1943.[7]
German-made DRB Class 52 steam locomotive used by the Deutsche Reichsbahn during World War II. Members of this class were used in the Holocaust.[8]

Within various phases of

Wannsee conference of 20 January 1942 near Berlin, where the "Final Solution of the Jewish question" (die Endlösung der Judenfrage) was set in place.[15] It was a euphemism referring to the Nazi plan for the annihilation of the Jewish people.[16]

During the liquidation of the ghettos starting in 1942, the trains were used to transport the condemned populations to death camps. To implement the "Final Solution", the Nazis made the Deutsche Reichsbahn an indispensable element of the mass extermination machine, wrote historian Raul Hilberg.[10]

The Nazis disguised their "Final Solution" as the mass "

Auschwitz-Birkenau.[17] The plan was being realized in the utmost secrecy. In late 1942, during a telephone conversation, Hitler's private secretary Martin Bormann admonished Heinrich Himmler, who was informing him about 50,000 Jews already exterminated in a concentration camp in Poland. "They were not exterminated – Bormann screamed – only evacuated, evacuated, evacuated!", and slammed down the phone, wrote Enghelberg.[18]

Following the

better source needed
]

At Wannsee, the

Reich Foreign Office. The RSHA coordinated and directed the deportations; the Transport Ministry organized train schedules; and the Foreign Office negotiated with German-allied states and their railways about "processing" their own Jews.[21]

The deportation trains did not make major demands on the railways' resources; a typical day during the 1941-2 period would see 30,000 rail services operated by the Reichsbahn - of these, just two would be deportation trains. They were also a low priority, and SS officials such as Franz Novak often faced difficulty in securing the rolling stock needed.[22]

The journey and point of arrival

The first trains with German Jews expelled to ghettos in

occupied Poland began departing from central Germany on 16 October 1941.[23] Called Sonderzüge (special trains),[24] the trains had low priority for the movement and frequently had to wait for other trains to pass, inevitably extending transport time beyond expectations.[24]

In Western and Central Europe, trains usually consisted of third class passenger carriages,[25] but in Eastern Europe they usually used freight wagons or cattle wagons;[26] the latter packed with up to 150 deportees, although 50 was the number proposed by the SS regulations. No food or water was supplied. The covered freight wagons were fitted with only a bucket latrine. A small barred window provided irregular ventilation, which oftentimes resulted in multiple deaths from either suffocation or exposure to the elements.[27]

Soviet POWs transported in an open wagon train (September 1941)

Polish forced labourers and Soviet prisoners of war were transported in similar poor conditions, also resulting in many deaths.[28][26]

At times, the Germans did not have enough Jews to fill an entire train's worth of wagons,

better source needed
]

The SS built three

gas vans, whose redirected exhaust fed into sealed compartments at the rear of the vehicle. These were used at Maly Trostenets as well.[33] Neither of these two camps had international rail connections; therefore, the trains stopped at the nearby Łódź Ghetto and Minsk Ghetto, respectively.[34] From there, the prisoners were taken by trucks.[34][35] At Treblinka, Belzec, and Sobibor, the killing mechanism consisted of a large internal-combustion engine delivering exhaust fumes to gas chambers through pipes.[36] At Auschwitz and Majdanek, the gas chambers relied on Zyklon B pellets of hydrogen cyanide, poured through vents in the roof from cans sealed hermetically.[36][37]

Once off the transports, the prisoners were split by category. The old, the young, the sick, and the infirm were sometimes separated for immediate death by shooting, while the rest were prepared for the gas chambers. In a single 14-hour workday, 12,000 to 15,000[38][page needed] people would be killed at any one of these camps.[36][39] The capacity of the crematoria at Birkenau was 20,000 bodies per day.[37][40]

  • Wagon with brakeman's cabin on Siding – Oswiecim – Poland
    Wagon with
    Oswiecim
    – Poland
  • Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia are "selected" on the Judenrampe, May–June 1944. To be sent to the right meant assignment to slave labour; to the left, the gas chambers.[41]
    Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia are "selected" on the Judenrampe, May–June 1944. To be sent to the right meant assignment to slave labour; to the left, the gas chambers.[41]

The calculations

Interior of a boxcar used to transport Jews and other Holocaust victims, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C.

The standard means of transport was a 10-metre long (32 ft 9+3⁄4 in)

Treblinka in 1942, trains carried up to 7,000 victims each.[43]

In total, over 1,600 trains were organised by the Reich Ministry of Transport, and logged mainly by the Polish state railway company taken over by Germany, due to the majority of death camps being located in occupied Poland.[44] Between 1941 and December 1944, the official date of the closing of the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex, the transport/arrival timetable was 1.5 trains per day: 50 freight cars × 50 prisoners per freight car × 1,066 days = ~4,000,000 prisoners in total.[18]

On 20 January 1943, Heinrich Himmler sent a letter to Albert Ganzenmüller, the Under-secretary of State at the Reich Transport Ministry, requesting: "need your help and support. If I am to wind things up quickly, I must have more trains."[45] Of the estimated six million Jews exterminated during World War II, two million were murdered on the spot by the military, Waffen-SS, Order Police battalions and mobile death squads of the Einsatzgruppen aided by and the local auxiliary police. The remainder were shipped to their deaths elsewhere.[citation needed]

Payment

Train tickets of Greek Jews deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau for extermination displayed at the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum

Most Jews were forced to pay for their own deportations, particularly wherever passenger carriages were used. This payment came in the form of direct money deposit to the SS in light of the "resettlement to work in the East" myth. Charged in the ghettos for accommodation, adult Jews paid full price one-way tickets, while children under 10–12 years of age paid half price, and those under four went free. Jews who had run out of money were the first to be deported.[1]

The SS forwarded part of this money to the German Transport Authority to pay the German Railways for transport of the Jews. The

Reichsmarks.[24]

The Reichsbahn pocketed both this money and its own share of the cash paid by the transported Jews after the SS fees. According to an expert report established on behalf of the German "Train of Commemoration" project, the receipts taken in by the state-owned Deutsche Reichsbahn for mass deportations in the period between 1938 and 1945 reached a sum of US$664,525,820.34.[46]

Operations across Europe

Powered mainly by efficient steam locomotives, the Holocaust trains were kept to a maximum of 55

Nazi concentration camp system.[18]

As well as transporting German Jews, DRB was responsible for coordinating transports on the rail networks of occupied territories and Germany's allies. The characteristics of organized concentration and transportation of victims of the Holocaust varied by country.

Belgium

A cattle wagon used for the transport of Belgian Jews to camps in Eastern Europe. The openings were covered in barbed wire.[47] This example is preserved at Fort Breendonk.

After Germany invaded

Queen Elisabeth with the German authorities.[50]
In 1943, the deportations of Belgians resumed.

In September, Jews with Belgian citizenship were deported for the first time.[50] After the war, the collaborator Felix Lauterborn stated in his trial that 80 percent of arrests in Antwerp used information from paid informants.[52] In total, 6,000 Jews were deported in 1943, with another 2,700 in 1944. Transports were halted by the deteriorating situation in occupied Belgium before the liberation.[53]

The percentages of Jews who were deported varied by location. It was highest in Antwerp, with 67 percent deported, but lower in Brussels (37 percent), Liége (35 percent) and Charleroi (42 percent).

Vittel concentration camp in France.[53] In total, 25,437 Jews were deported from Belgium.[53] Only 1,207 of these survived the war.[55]

The only time during World War II that a Holocaust train carrying Jewish deportees from Western Europe was stopped by the underground happened on 19 April 1943, when the

Transport No. 20 left Mechelen with 1,631 Jews, heading for Auschwitz. Soon after leaving Mechelen, the driver stopped the train after seeing an emergency red light, set by the Belgians. After a brief firefight between the Nazi train guards and the three resistance members – equipped only with one pistol between them – the train started again. Of the 233 people who attempted to escape, 26 were shot on the spot, 89 were recaptured, and 118 got away.[56][57]

Bulgaria

Original wagon used for transport of Macedonian Jews at the Holocaust Memorial Center for the Jews of Macedonia
See also: The Holocaust in Bulgaria

Bulgaria joined the

occupied Poland requiring each train to stop daily to dump the bodies of Jews who died during the previous 24 hours.[45] In May 1943, the Bulgarian government led by King Boris III expelled 20,000 Jews from Sofia and at the same time, made plans to deport Bulgaria's Jews to the camps pursuant to an agreement with Germany.[60] A Holocaust train from Thrace was witnessed by Stefan I, the Metropolitan Bishop of Sofia, who was shocked by what he saw.[61] Ultimately, the Jews of Bulgaria proper were not deported.[61]

Bohemia and Moravia

See also: The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia

Czechoslovakia was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1939. Within the new ethnic-Czech Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia the Czechoslovak State Railways (ČSD) were taken over by the Reichsbann and the new German railway company Böhmisch-Mährische Bahn (BMB) was set up in its place.[62] Three-quarters of Bohemian and Moravian Jews were murdered in the Holocaust,[63] of whom 33,000 died in Theresienstadt Ghetto.[64] The remainder were transported in Holocaust trains from Theresienstadt mainly to Auschwitz-Birkenau. The last train for Birkenau left Theresienstadt on 28 October 1944 with 2,038 Jews of whom 1,589 were immediately gassed.[65]

France

Deportation of Jews during the Marseille roundup, 24 January 1943

The French national

Serge Klarsfeld, president of the organization Sons and Daughters of Jewish Deportees from France, SNCF was forced by German and Vichy authorities to cooperate in providing transport for French Jews to the border and did not make any profit from this transport.[69] However, in December 2014, SNCF agreed to pay up to $60 million worth of compensation to Holocaust survivors in the United States.[70] It corresponds to approximately $100,000 per survivor.[71]

Drancy internment camp served as the main transport hub for the Paris area and regions west and south thereof until August 1944, under the command of Alois Brunner from Austria.[72] By 3 February 1944, 67 trains had left from there for Birkenau.[65] Vittel internment camp served the northeast, closer to the German border from where all transports were taken over by German agents. By 23 June 1943, 50,000 Jews had been deported from France, a pace that the Germans deemed too slow.[73] The last train from France left Drancy on 31 July 1944 with over 300 children.[65]

Greece

Deportation of Jews from Ioannina in March 1944

After

the invasion, Greece was divided between the Italian, Bulgarian, and German zones of occupation until September 1943. Most Greek Jews lived in Thessaloniki (Salonika) ruled by Germany, where the collection camp was set up for the Jews also from Athens and the Greek Islands
. From there 45,000–50,000 Jews were sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau between March and August 1943, packed 80 to a wagon. There were also 13,000 Greek Jews in the Italian, and 4,000 Jews in the Bulgarian zone of occupation. In September 1943, the Italian zone was taken over by the Third Reich.

Overall, some 60,000–65,000 Greek Jews were deported in Holocaust trains by the SS to Auschwitz, Majdanek, Dachau and the subcamps of Mauthausen before the war's end,

Treblinka from the regions of Thrace and from Macedonia in the Bulgarian share of the partitioned Greece, where they were gassed upon arrival.[75][76]

Hungary

Holocaust train from Hungary, exhibition

Under Hungarian control, the number of Jews officially increased to 725,007 by 1941. Of this total, 184,453 Jews lived in Budapest.

Operation Margarethe in March 1944, and took over control of all Jewish affairs.[77] On 29 April 1944, the first deportation of Hungarian Jews to Birkenau took place.[65] Between 15–25 May according to SS-Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer 138,870 Jews had been deported. On 31 May 1944, Veesenmayer reported an additional 60,000 Jews were sent to the camps in six days, while the total for the past 16 days stood at 204,312 victims.[65] Between May and July 1944, helped by Hungarian police, the German Sicherheitspolizei deported nearly 440,000 Hungarian Jews, mainly to Auschwitz-Birkenau,[80][81] or 437,000 at the rate of 6,250 per day.[65]

Approximately 320,000 Hungarian Jews are estimated to have been murdered at Auschwitz-Birkenau before July 1944.

King of Sweden, and the Red Cross (all of whom had recently learned about the extent of it).[65] However, in October 1944 some 50,000 Jews were forced on a death march to Germany following a coup d'état which put the Hungarian pro-Nazi government back in control. They were forced to dig anti-tank ditches on the road westward. A further 25,000 Jews were put in an "international ghetto" under Swedish protection engineered by Carl Lutz and Raoul Wallenberg. When the Soviet Army liberated Budapest on 17 January 1945, of the original 825,000 Jews in the country,[83] less than 260,000 Jews were still alive,[83][84] including 80,000 Hungarian natives.[85][86]

Italy

Italian Holocaust train exhibition, Verona

The popular view that Benito Mussolini resisted the deportation of Italian Jews to Germany is widely seen as simplistic by Jewish scholars,[87] because the Italian Jewish community of 47,000 constituted the most assimilated Jews in Europe.[88] About one out of every three Jewish males were members of the Fascist Party before the war began; more than 10,000 Jews who used to conceal their identity,[88] because antisemitism was part of the very ideal of italianità, wrote Wiley Feinstein.[89]

The Holocaust came to Italy in September 1943 after the German takeover of the country due to its total capitulation at Cassibile.[89] By February 1944, the Germans shipped 8,000 Jews to Auschwitz-Birkenau via Austria and Switzerland,[90] although more than half of the victims arrested and deported from northern Italy were rounded up by the Italian police and not by the Nazis.[87] Also between September 1943 and April 1944, at least 23,000 Italian soldiers were deported to work as slaves in the German war industry, while over 10,000 partisans were captured and deported during the same period to Birkenau. By 1944, there were over half a million Italians working for the benefit of the German war machine.[91]

Netherlands

The Netherlands was invaded on 10 May 1940 and fell under German military control. The community of native-Dutch Jews including the new Jewish refugees from Germany and Austria was estimated at 140,000.[92] Most natives were concentrated in the Amsterdam ghetto before being moved to Westerbork transit camp in the north-east near the German border. Deportees for "resettlement" leaving aboard the NS passenger and freight trains were unaware of their final destination or fate,[93] as postcards were often thrown from moving trains.[94]

Most of the approximately 100,000 Jews sent to Westerbork perished.

Cosel. There were 18 survivors out of approximately one thousand people selected from the nineteen trains to Sobibor, the remainder being murdered on arrival. For the Netherlands, the overall survival rate among Jews who boarded the trains for all camps was 4.86 percent.[96][97] On 29 September 2005, the Dutch national rail company Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) apologised for its role in the deportation of Jews to the death camps.[98]

Norway

Main article: Jewish deportees from Norway during World War II

Norway surrendered to Nazi Germany on 10 June 1940. At the time, there were 1,700 Jews living in Norway. About half of them escaped to neutral Sweden. Round-ups by the SS began in the fall of 1942 with the support of the Norwegian police. In late November 1942, all Jews of

Quisling government and taken to Hamburg, Germany. From there, they were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau by train. In total, 770 Norwegian Jews were sent by boat to Germany between 1940 and 1945. Only two dozen survived.[99]

Poland

Kulmhof extermination camp
.
Corpses of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto who died inside sealed boxcars before reaching Treblinka extermination camp, August 1942
Further information: Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), The Holocaust in Poland, and Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

Following

PKP) immediately, and handed over their assets to the Deutsche Reichsbahn in Silesia, Greater Poland and in Pomerania.[100] In November 1939, as soon as the semi-colonial General Government was set up in occupied central Poland, a separate branch of DRB called Generaldirektion der Ostbahn (Kolej Wschodnia in Polish) was established with headquarters called GEDOB in Kraków;[100] all of the DRB branches existed outside Germany proper.[101] The Ostbahn was granted 3,818 kilometres (2,372 mi) of railway lines (nearly doubled by 1941) and 505 km of narrow gauge, initially.[102]

In December 1939, on the request of Hans Frank in Berlin, the Ostbahndirektion was given financial independence after paying back 10 million Reichsmarks to DRB.[103] The removal of all bomb damage was completed in 1940.[104] The Polish management was either executed in mass shooting actions (see: the 1939 Intelligenzaktion and the 1940 German AB-Aktion in Poland) or imprisoned at the Nazi concentration camps.[102] Managerial jobs were staffed with German officials in a wave of some 8,000 instant promotions.[100] The new Eastern Division of DRB acquired 7,192 kilometres (4,469 mi) of new railway lines and 1,052 km of (mostly industrial) narrow gauge in the annexed areas.[102]

The Deutsche Reichsbahn acquired new infrastructure in Poland worth in excess of 8,278,600,000 złoty,[105] including some of the largest locomotive factories in Europe, the H. Cegielski – Poznań renamed DWM, and Fablok in Chrzanów renamed Oberschlesische Lokomotivwerke Krenau producing engines Ty37 and Pt31 (designed in Poland), as well as the locomotive parts factory Babcock-Zieleniewski in Sosnowiec renamed Ferrum AG (tasked with making parts to V-1 i V-2 rockets also).[106] Under the new management, formerly Polish companies began producing German engines BR44, BR50 and BR86 as early as 1940 virtually for free, using forced labor. All Polish railwaymen were ordered to return to their place of work, or face death. Beating with fists became commonplace, although perceived as shocking by Polish long-term professionals. Their public executions were introduced in 1942.[102] By 1944, the factories in Poznań and Chrzanów were mass-producing for the Eastern Front the redesigned "Kriegslok" BR52 locomotives stripped of non-ferrous metals and instead made mostly of steel; locomotives in that battlespace were not expected to survive for long, so managers eliminated the use of higher-value metal like bronze, chrome, copper, brass, and nickel.[100]

Before the onset of

gas vans. In 1942, stationary gas chambers were built at Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, Majdanek and Auschwitz. After the Nazi takeover of PKP, the train movements, originating inside and outside occupied Poland and terminating at death camps, were tracked by Dehomag using IBM-supplied card-reading machines and traditional waybills produced by the Reichsbahn.[44] The Holocaust trains were always managed and directed by native German SS men posted with that express' role throughout the system.[107]

The transports to camps under Operation Reinhard came mainly from the ghettos. The

Grossaktion Warsaw concluded several months before the subsequent Warsaw Ghetto Uprising resulting in new deportations.[112] The 1942 Höfle Telegram
of the total number of victims most of whom were transported by train to Operation Reinhard death camps, including cumulative numbers known today, is as follows:

Location Numbers and notes
Belzec
    		quoted: 434,508 (real total of 600,000 with 246,922 deportees from within the semi-colonial General Government alone, per contemporary research)[113]
Majdanek
    		quoted: 24,733 (cumulative number of 130,000 victims, per Majdanek State Museum research)[114]
Sobibor
    		quoted: 101,370 (final count in excess of 200,000 with 140,000 from Lublin, and 25,000 Jews from Lviv alone per contemporary historians)[115]
Treblinka
    		quoted: 713,555 (overall minimum of 800,000–900,000 at Camp II and 20,000 at Camp I)[116]
The Höfle Telegram lists the number of arrivals to the Aktion Reinhard Camps through 1942 (1,274,166)

The

Auschwitz-Birkenau by train at the rate of 2,500 per day.[65]

Romania

Pulling dead Jews from the "death train" of Iași pogrom, July 1941[118]
See also: Responsibility for the Holocaust § Romania

Călăraşi with only one-fifth of their passengers alive.[118][119][120] No official apology was released yet by Căile Ferate Române
for their role in the Holocaust in Romania.

Slovakia

Main article: List of Holocaust transports from Slovakia

On 9 September 1941, the parliament of the

Slovak People’s Party paid 500 Reichsmarks per expelled Jew, in exchange for a promise that the deportees would never return to Slovakia. Except for Croatia, Slovakia was the only Axis ally to pay for the deportation of its own Jewish population. Most of the Jewish population perished in two waves of deportations. The first, in 1942, took away two-thirds of the Slovak Jews; the second wave after the Slovak National Uprising in 1944 claimed another 13,500 victims, 10,000 of whom did not return.[121][122][123]

Switzerland

Entrance to the Gotthard Tunnel

Switzerland was not invaded because its mountain bridges and tunnels between Germany and Italy were too vital for them to go into war,[124] while the Swiss banks provided necessary access to international markets by dealing in pilfered gold.[125] Most war supplies to Italy were shipped through the Austrian Brenner Pass.[126]

There exists substantial evidence that these shipments included Italian forced labour workers and trainloads of Jews in 1944 during the German occupation of northern Italy,

Ventimiglia-Nice). The commission could not find any evidence that the other three passed through Switzerland. It is possible that the train could have been carrying dissidents back from concentration camps. Started in 1944, some repatriation trains went through Switzerland officially, organised by the Red Cross.[124][128]

Aftermath

After the Soviet Army began to advance into German-occupied Europe and the Allies

Theresienstadt—all were liberated.[97]

The last recorded train is the one used to transport the women of the Flossenbürg March, where for three days in March 1945 the remaining survivors were crammed into cattle cars to await further transport. Only 200 of the original 1000 women survived the entire trip to Bergen-Belsen.[129]

Remembrance and commemoration

The wagon monument, Yad Vashem, Jerusalem
The wagon monument, Yad Vashem, Jerusalem

There are numerous national commemorations of the mass transportation of Jews in the "Final Solution" across Europe, as well as some lingering controversies surrounding the history of the railway systems utilized by the Nazis.

France

In 1992, SNCF commissioned a report on its involvement in World War II. The company opened its archives to an independent historian, Christian Bachelier, whose report was released in French in 2000.[130][131] It was translated to English in 2010.[132]

In 2001, a lawsuit was filed against

Holocaust survivor, who was transported by SNCF to the Drancy internment camp in 1944.[133] Lipietz was held at the internment camp for several months before the camp was liberated.[134] After Lipietz's death the lawsuit was pursued by his family and in 2006 an administrative court in Toulouse ruled in favor of the Lipietz family. SNCF was ordered to pay 61,000 Euros in restitution. SNCF appealed the ruling at an administrative appeals court in Bordeaux, where in March 2007 the original ruling was overturned.[133][135] According to historian Michael Marrus, the court in Bordeaux "declared the railway company had acted under the authority of the Vichy government and the German occupation" and as such could not be held independently liable.[130]
[note 1] Marrus wrote in his 2011 essay that the company has nevertheless taken responsibility for its actions and it is the company's willingness to open up its archives revealing involvement in the transportation of Holocaust victims that has led to the recent legal and legislative attention.[130]

Between 2002 and 2004 the SNCF helped fund an exhibit on the deportation of Jewish children that was organized by Nazi hunter

Shoah Foundation for the creation of a memorial to honor Holocaust victims.[131] In December 2014, the company came to a $60 million compensation settlement with French Holocaust survivors living in the United States.[70]

Germany

Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, view from the south

In 2004/2005, German historians and journalists began publicly demanding that the German passenger train stations' commemorative exhibits be set up after the railroad companies in France and the Netherlands began commemorations of mass deportations in their own train stations.

Frankfurt am Main and in Cologne as well as inside the long-distance border-crossing trains.[144] Because the DB AG had responded by having its security personnel repress the protests, German citizens' initiatives rented a historical steam locomotive and installed their own exhibition in remodeled passenger cars. This "Train of Commemoration" made its first journey on the 2007 International Holocaust Remembrance Day of January 27. The Deutsche Bahn AG refused it access to the main stations in Hamburg and Berlin.[145][146] German Jewish communities protested against the company levying mileage tariffs and hourly fees for the exhibit (which by December 31, 2013, reached approx. US $290,000).[147]

Parliamentarians of all parties in the German national parliament called on the DB AG to rethink its behavior.[148] Federal Transport Minister Wolfgang Tiefensee proposed an exhibition by artist Jan Philipp Reemtsma on the railways' role in the deportation of 11,000 Jewish children to their deaths in Nazi concentration and extermination camps throughout World War II. Because the CEO of the railroad company maintained his refusal, a "serious rift" occurred between himself and the Minister of Transport.[149] On January 23, 2008, a compromise was reached, wherein the DB AG established its own stationary exhibit Sonderzüge in den Tod [Chartered Trains to Death – Deportation with the German Reichsbahn].[150] As national press journals pointed out, the exhibit "contained nearly nothing about the culprits". The post-war careers of those in charge of the railroad remained "totally obscured".[151] Since 2009, the civil society association Train of Commemoration which, with its donations financed the exhibition "Train of Commemoration" presented at 130 German stations with 445,000 visitors, has been demanding cumulative compensation for the survivors of these deportations by train. The railroad's proprietors (the German Minister of Transport and the German Minister of Finances) rejected this demand.[152]

Netherlands

Nederlandse Spoorwegen used its 29 September 2005 apology for its role in the "Final Solution" to launch an equal opportunities and anti-discrimination policy, in part to be monitored by the Dutch Jewish council.[153]

Poland

Memorial to Holocaust trains at the Umschlagplatz of the Warsaw Ghetto

All railway lines leading to death camps built in occupied Poland are ceremonially cut off from the existing railway system in the country, similar to the well-preserved arrival point at Auschwitz known as the "Judenrampe" platform. The commemorative monuments are traditionally erected at collection points elsewhere. In 1988, a national monument was created at the Umschlagplatz of the Warsaw Ghetto. Designed by architect Hanna Szmalenberg and sculptor Władysław Klamerus, it consists of a stone structure symbolizing an open freight car.[154] In Kraków, the memorial to Jews from the Kraków Ghetto deported during the Holocaust spreads over the entire deportation site known as the Square of the Ghetto Heroes (Plac Bohaterow Getta). Inaugurated in December 2005, it consists of oversized steel chairs (each representing 1,000 victims), designed by architects Piotr Lewicki and Kazimierz Latak.[155] At the former Łódź Ghetto, the monument was built at the Radegast train station (Bahnhof Radegast), where approximately 200,000 Polish, Austrian, German, Luxemburg and Czech Jews boarded the trains on the way to their deaths in the period from 16 January 1942, to 29 August 1944.[156][157]

See also

Railway companies involved

Memorials

Footnotes

  1. ^ Following the Lipietz trial, SNCF's involvement in
    MARC train in Maryland.[132] Following pressure from Holocaust survivors in Maryland, the state passed legislation in 2011 requiring companies bidding on the project to disclose their involvement in the Holocaust.[136][137] Keolis currently operates the Virginia Railway Express, a contract the company received in 2010.[132][136] In California, also in 2010, state lawmakers passed the Holocaust Survivor Responsibility Act. The bill, written to require companies to disclose their involvement in World War II,[138] was later vetoed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger.[137][139]
    While bidding on these rail contracts, SNCF was criticized for not formally acknowledging and apologizing for its involvement in World War II. In 2011, SNCF chairman Guillaume Pepy released a formal statement of regrets for the company's actions during World War II.[131][140][141] Some historians have expressed the opinion that SNCF has been unfairly targeted in the United States for their involvement in World War II. Human rights attorney Arno Klarsfeld has argued that the negative focus on SNCF was disrespectful to the French railway workers who lost their lives engaging in acts of resistance.[131]

Citations

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-0202366111
    . Bureaucrats in the Reichsbahn performed important functions that facilitated the movement of trains. They constructed and published timetables, collected fares, and allocated cars and locomotives. In sending Jews to their death, they did not deviate much from the routine procedures they used to process ordinary train traffic.
  2. ISBN 978-1845459277
    .
  3. ^ HOLOCAUST FAQ: Operation Reinhard: A Layman's Guide (2/2).
  4. Timeline of Treblinka
    (en).
  5. ^ Yad Vashem (2014), Nazi Germany and the Jews 1933-1939, archived from the original on 2014-02-07
  6. ISBN 978-0-674038-59-2
    .
  7. ISBN 978-1473855410
    .
  8. ^ Claude Lanzmann Shoah Collection (July 1978). Henryk Gawkowski and Treblinka railway workers (Camera Rolls #4-7) (in Polish and French). USHMM, Washington, DC: Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive. Event occurs at 02:10:59 and 07:10:16. ID: 3362-3372. Retrieved 8 September 2015 – via Clips viewable online.
  9. ^ Types of Ghettos. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C.
  10. ^
    S2CID 144274402
    .
  11. ^ "1939: The War Against The Jews." The Holocaust Chronicle published by Publications International, April 2000.
  12. ^ Michael Berenbaum, The World Must Know, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2006, p. 114.
  13. ^ a b Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen, "The Ghettos of Poland." Archived 2013-10-22 at the Wayback Machine The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 2002.
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References

External links

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