Hominidae

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Hominidae
Ma
The eight extant hominid species, one row per genus (humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily: Hominoidea
Family: Hominidae
Gray, 1825[2]
Type genus
Homo
Linnaeus, 1758
Subfamilies

sister: Hylobatidae

Distribution of great ape species
Synonyms
  • Pongidae Elliot, 1913
  • Gorillidae Frechkop, 1943
  • Panidae Ciochon, 1983

The Hominidae (/hɒˈmɪnɪd/), whose members are known as the great apes[note 1] or hominids (/ˈhɒmɪnɪdz/), are a taxonomic family of primates that includes eight extant species in four genera: Pongo (the Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutan); Gorilla (the eastern and western gorilla); Pan (the chimpanzee and the bonobo); and Homo, of which only modern humans (Homo sapiens) remain.[1]

Numerous revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to change over time. The original meaning of "hominid" referred only to humans (Homo) and their closest extinct relatives. However, by the 1990s humans, apes, and their ancestors were considered to be "hominids".

The earlier restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees (Pan). The current meaning of "hominid" includes all the great apes including humans. Usage still varies, however, and some scientists and laypersons still use "hominid" in the original restrictive sense; the scholarly literature generally shows the traditional usage until the turn of the 21st century.[5]

Within the taxon Hominidae, a number of extant and extinct genera are grouped with the humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas in the subfamily

Hylobatidae (the gibbons), perhaps 15 to 20 million years ago.[7][8]

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and the other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that nonhuman great apes are persons and should be given basic human rights. Twenty-nine countries have instituted research bans to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.[9]

Evolution

Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)

In the early

tree-adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa; the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils from 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest Old World monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million years ago are Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus
, all from East Africa.

At sites far distant from East Africa, the presence of other generalized non-

, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago.

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae), the "lesser apes", diverged from that of the great apes some 18–12 million years ago, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) diverged from the other great apes at about 12 million years. There are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a still-unknown South East Asian hominoid population; but fossil proto-orangutans, dated to around 10 million years ago, may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey.[10] Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus fossils found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas (genus Gorilla), and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to humans. Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics).[11] The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation—rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone—and sampling bias probably contribute most to this problem.

Other

Orrorin tugenensis (6 Ma), followed by Ardipithecus
(5.5–4.4 Ma), with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus.

Taxonomy

Terminology

extant
hominid genera.

The classification of the great apes has been

hominin". The meaning of the taxon
Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a modern usage of "hominid" that includes all the great apes including humans.

A number of very similar words apply to related classifications:

A cladogram indicating common names (cf. more detailed cladogram below):

Hominoidea

Hylobatidae
   gibbons

Hominidae
Ponginae
Pongo

Pongo abelii

Pongo tapanuliensis

Pongo pygmaeus

orangutans
Homininae
Gorillini
Gorilla

Gorilla gorilla

Gorilla beringei

gorillas
Hominini
Panina
Pan

Pan troglodytes

Pan paniscus

chimpanzees
Hominina

Homo sapiens

     humans

homininans
hominins
hominines
hominids, great apes
hominoids, apes

Extant and fossil relatives of humans

The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City
, Oklahoma

Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their (extinct) close relatives, with the other

monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, the use of Pongidae to be restricted to just one closely related grouping. Thus, many biologists now assign Pongo (as the subfamily Ponginae
) to the family Hominidae. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings according to the modern understanding of human and great ape relationships.

Humans and close relatives including the tribes Hominini and Gorillini form the subfamily Homininae (see classification graphic below). (A few researchers go so far as to refer the chimpanzees and the gorillas to the genus Homo along with humans.)[15][16][17] But, those fossil relatives more closely related to humans than the chimpanzees represent the especially close members of the human family, and without necessarily assigning subfamily or tribal categories.[18]

Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family include Gigantopithecus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Kenyanthropus, and the australopithecines Australopithecus and Paranthropus.[19]

The exact criteria for membership in the tribe Hominini under the current understanding of human origins are not clear, but the taxon generally includes those species that share more than 97% of their DNA with the modern human genome, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple cultures beyond their 'local family' or band. The theory of mind concept—including such faculties as empathy, attribution of mental state, and even empathetic deception—is a controversial criterion; it distinguishes the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity after about four years of age, whereas it has not been proven (nor has it been disproven) that gorillas or chimpanzees ever develop a theory of mind.[20] This is also the case for some New World monkeys outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys.

However, even without the ability to test whether early members of the Hominini (such as Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Orangutans have shown the development of culture comparable to that of chimpanzees,[21] and some[who?] say the orangutan may also satisfy those criteria for the theory of mind concept. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of great ape personhood.

Phylogeny

Below is a cladogram with extinct species.[22][23][24][failed verification] It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades.[25]

Hominidae (18)
Ponginae (14)

Kenyapithecus (†13 Mya)

Sivapithecus (†9)

Crown Ponginae

Ankarapithecus (†9)

Giganthopithecus
(†0.1)

Khoratpithecus (†7)

(13)
(12)
Homininae (13)

Hominoidea (emphasis on family Hominidae): After an initial separation from the main line by the Hylobatidae (gibbons) some 18 million years ago, the line of Ponginae broke away, leading to the orangutan; later, the Homininae split into the tribes Hominini (led to humans and chimpanzees) and Gorillini
(led to gorillas).

Extant

There are eight living species of great ape which are classified in four genera. The following classification is commonly accepted:[1]

Fossil

the skull sometimes known as "Nutcracker Man", found by Mary Leakey

In addition to the extant species and subspecies,

anthropologists have discovered and classified numerous extinct great ape species as below, based on the taxonomy shown.[27]

Family Hominidae

Description

Gorilla

The great apes are tailless primates, with the smallest living species being the bonobo at 30 to 40 kilograms (66 to 88 lb) in weight, and the largest being the eastern gorillas, with males weighing 140 to 180 kilograms (310 to 400 lb). In all great apes, the males are, on average, larger and stronger than the females, although the degree of sexual dimorphism varies greatly among species. Hominid teeth are similar to those of the Old World monkeys and gibbons, although they are especially large in gorillas. The dental formula is 2.1.2.32.1.2.3. Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for their size than those of other apes, which may be an adaptation to not only having supplanted with extensive tool use the role of jaws in hunting and fighting, but also eating cooked food since the end of the Pleistocene.[32][33]

Behavior

Although most living species are predominantly

quadrupedal, they are all able to use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and, in some cases, for tool use.[34] They build complex sleeping platforms, also called nests, in trees to sleep in at night, but chimpanzees and gorillas also build terrestrial nests, and gorillas can also sleep on the bare ground.[35]

All species are

Neolithic revolution, have consumed mostly cereals and other starchy foods, including increasingly highly processed foods, as well as many other domesticated plants (including fruits) and meat
.

Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and require care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for eight to thirteen years in most species (longer in orangutans and humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.[34]

Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of around five to ten individuals, although much larger groups are sometimes noted. Chimpanzees live in larger groups that break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. When small groups of female chimpanzees go off in separate directions to forage for fruit, the dominant males can no longer control them and the females often mate with other subordinate males. In contrast, groups of gorillas stay together regardless of the availability of fruit. When fruit is hard to find, they resort to eating leaves and shoots.

This fact is related to gorillas' greater sexual dimorphism relative to that of chimpanzees; that is, the difference in size between male and female gorillas is much greater than that between male and female chimpanzees. This enables gorilla males to physically dominate female gorillas more easily. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, the groups include at least one dominant male, and young males leave the group at maturity.

Legal status

Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and the other great apes, certain

research ban
to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing.

On 25 June 2008, the Spanish parliament supported a new law that would make "keeping apes for circuses, television commercials or filming" illegal.

banned the testing of great apes.[38]

Conservation

The following table lists the estimated number of great ape individuals living outside zoos.

Species Estimated
number
Conservation
status
Refs
Bornean orangutan 61,234
Critically endangered
[39]
Sumatran orangutan 6,667
Critically endangered
[40]
Tapanuli orangutan 800
Critically endangered
[41]
Western gorilla 200,000
Critically endangered
[42]
Eastern gorilla 6,000
Critically endangered
[42]
Chimpanzee 200,000
Endangered
[43][44]
Bonobo 10,000
Endangered
[43]
Human 8,011,003,000 N/A [45]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label, and there are differences in usage, even by the same author. The term may or may not include humans, as when Dawkins writes "Long before people thought in terms of evolution ... great apes were often confused with humans"[3] and "gibbons are faithfully monogamous, unlike the great apes which are our closer relatives."[4]

References

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  2. ^ Gray, J. E. (1825). "An outline of an attempt at the disposition of Mammalia into Tribes and Families, with a list of genera apparently appertaining to each Tribe". Annals of Philosophy. New Series. 10: 337–334.
  3. .
  4. ^ Dawkins (2005), p. 126.
  5. ^ Morton, Mary. "Hominid vs. hominin". Earth Magazine. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
  6. .
  7. ^ a b Dawkins R (2004) The Ancestor's Tale.
  8. ^ "Query: Hominidae/Hylobatidae". TimeTree. Temple University. 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  9. ^ "International Bans | Laws | Release & Restitution for Chimpanzees". releasechimps.org. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
  10. . Retrieved 6 November 2011.
  11. .
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  13. . Cela-Conde, C.J.; Ayala, F.J. (2003). "Genera of the human lineage". PNAS. 100 (13): 7684–7689.
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    . Wood, B.; Lonergan, N. (2008). "The hominin fossil record: taxa, grades and clades" (PDF). J. Anat. 212 (4): 354–376.
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  14. ^ "GEOL 204 The Fossil Record: The Scatterlings of Africa: The Origins of Humanity". www.geol.umd.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
  15. ^ Pickrell, John (20 May 2003). "Chimps Belong on Human Branch of Family Tree, Study Says". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 1 June 2003. Retrieved 4 August 2007.
  16. ^ Relationship Humans-Gorillas Archived 30 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  17. ^ Watson, E. E.; et al. (2001). "Homo genus: a review of the classification of humans and the great apes". In Tobias, P. V.; et al. (eds.). Humanity from African Naissance to Coming Millennia. Florence: Firenze Univ. Press. pp. 311–323.
  18. ^ Schwartz, J.H. (1986) Primate systematics and a classification of the order. Comparative primate biology volume 1: Systematics, evolution, and anatomy (ed. by D.R. Swindler, and J. Erwin), pp. 1–41, Alan R. Liss, New York.
  19. ^ Schwartz, J.H. (2004b) Issues in hominid systematics. Zona Arqueología 4, 360–371.
  20. S2CID 6469633
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  21. .
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  24. ^ "Hominidae | primate family". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  25. ^ Malukiewicz, Joanna; Hepp, Crystal M.; Guschanski, Katerina; Stone, Anne C. (1 January 2017). "Phylogeny of the jacchus group of Callithrix marmosets based on complete mitochondrial genomes". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (1): 157–169.
    PMID 27762445
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    Fig 2: "Divergence time estimates for the jacchus marmoset group based on the BEAST4 (Di Fiore et al., 2015) calibration scheme for alignment A.[...] Numbers at each node indicate the median divergence time estimate."
  26. .
  27. ^ Haaramo, Mikko (14 January 2005). "Hominoidea". Mikko's Phylogeny Archive.
  28. ^ Haaramo, Mikko (4 February 2004). "Pongidae". Mikko's Phylogeny Archive.
  29. ^ Haaramo, Mikko (14 January 2005). "Hominoidea". Mikko's Phylogeny Archive.
  30. ^ Haaramo, Mikko (10 November 2007). "Hominidae". Mikko's Phylogeny Archive.
  31. PMID 28531170
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  32. .
  33. .
  34. ^
    ISBN 978-0-87196-871-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  35. ^ Deciding Where to Sleep: Spatial Levels of Nesting Selection in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) Living in Savanna at Issa, Tanzania
  36. ^ Alina, Bradford (29 May 2015). "Facts About Apes". livescience.com. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  37. ^ "Spanish parliament to extend rights to apes". Reuters. 25 June 2008. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
  38. Independent.co.uk
    . 12 September 2010.
  39. ^ "Orangutan Action Plan 2007–2017" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Government of Indonesia. 2007. p. 5. Retrieved 1 May 2010.\
  40. . 2007.
  41. . Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  42. ^ a b "Gorillas on Thin Ice". United Nations Environment Programme. 15 January 2009. Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2010.
  43. ^
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  44. ^ "Chimpanzees".
  45. ^ "U.S. and World Population Clock". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 22 November 2022.

External links