Homo erectus
Homo erectus | |
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Replica of the skull of Peking Man at the Paleozoological Museum of China | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Primates |
Suborder: | Haplorhini |
Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
Family: | Hominidae |
Subfamily: | Homininae |
Tribe: | Hominini |
Genus: | Homo |
Species: | †H. erectus
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Binomial name | |
†Homo erectus (Dubois, 1893)
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Synonyms | |
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Homo erectus (
Several human species, such as
H. erectus had a more modern gait and body proportions, and was the first human species to have exhibited a flat face, prominent nose, and possibly sparse body hair coverage. Though the species' brain size certainly exceeds that of ancestor species, capacity varied widely depending on the population. In earlier populations, brain development seemed to cease early in childhood, suggesting that offspring were largely self-sufficient at birth, thus limiting cognitive development through life. H. erectus was an
H. erectus males and females may have been roughly the same size as each other (i.e. exhibited reduced sexual dimorphism), which could indicate monogamy in line with general trends exhibited in primates. Size, nonetheless, ranged widely from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight. It is unclear if H. erectus was anatomically capable of speech, though it is postulated they communicated using some proto-language.
Taxonomy
Naming
Contrary to the view
The significance of these fossils would not be realized until the 1927 discovery of what Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black called "Sinanthropus pekinensis" (Peking Man) at the Zhoukoudian cave near Beijing, China. Black lobbied across North America and Europe for funding to continue excavating the site,[11] which has since become the most productive H. erectus site in the world.[12] Continued interest in Java led to further H. erectus fossil discoveries at Ngandong (Solo Man) in 1931, Mojokerto (Java Man) in 1936, and Sangiran (Java Man) in 1937. The Sangiran site yielded the best preserved Java Man skull.[13] German paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich provided much of the detailed description of the Chinese specimens in several monographs. The original specimens were lost during the Second Sino-Japanese War after an attempt to smuggle them out of China for safekeeping. Only casts remain.
Similarities between Java Man and Peking Man led Ernst Mayr to rename both as Homo erectus in 1950. Throughout much of the 20th century, anthropologists debated the role of H. erectus in human evolution. Early in the century, due in part to the discoveries at Java and Zhoukoudian, the belief that modern humans first evolved in Asia was widely accepted. A few naturalists—Charles Darwin the most prominent among them—theorized that humans' earliest ancestors were African. Darwin had pointed out that chimpanzees and gorillas, humans' closest relatives, evolved and exist only in Africa.[14] Darwin did not include orangutans among the great apes of the Old World, likely because he thought of orangutans as primitive humans rather than apes.[15] While Darwin considered Africa as the most probable birthplace of human ancestors, he also made the following statement about the geographic location of human origins in his book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex: "... it is useless to speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the Dryopithecus …, existed in Europe during the Miocene age; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale." (1889, pp. 155-156).
In 1949, the species was reported in Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, by South African paleoanthropologists Robert Broom and John Talbot Robinson, who described it as "Telanthropus capensis".[16] Homo fossils have also been reported from nearby caves, but their species designation has been a tumultuous discussion. A few North African sites have additionally yielded H. erectus remains, which at first were classified as "Atlantanthropus mauritanicus" in 1951.[17] Beginning in the 1970s, propelled most notably by Richard Leakey, more were being unearthed in East Africa predominantly at the Koobi Fora site, Kenya, and Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.[18]
Archaic human fossils unearthed across Europe used to be assigned to H. erectus, but have since been separated as H. heidelbergensis as a result of British physical anthropologist Chris Stringer's work.[19]
Evolution
million years ago ) |
It has been proposed that H. erectus evolved from
Because the earliest remains of H. erectus are found in both Africa and East Asia (in China as early as 2.1 Mya,[21][22][23] in South Africa 2.04 Mya[2][24]), it is debated where H. erectus evolved. A 2011 study suggested that it was H. habilis who reached West Asia from Africa, that early H. erectus developed there, and that early H. erectus would then have dispersed from West Asia to East Asia (Peking Man), Southeast Asia (Java Man), back to Africa (Homo ergaster), and to Europe (Tautavel Man), eventually evolving into modern humans in Africa.[25][26] Others have suggested that H. erectus/H. ergaster developed in Africa, where it eventually evolved into modern humans.[27][28]
H. erectus had reached Sangiran, Java, by 1.5 Mya,[29] and a second and distinct wave of H. erectus had colonized Zhoukoudian, China, about 780 kya (thousand years ago). Early teeth from Sangiran are bigger and more similar to those of basal (ancestral) Western H. erectus and H. habilis than to those of the derived Zhoukoudian H. erectus. However, later Sangiran teeth seem to reduce in size, which could indicate a secondary colonization event of Java by the Zhoukoudian or some closely related population.[30]
Subspecies
"Wushan Man" was proposed as Homo erectus wushanensis, but is now thought to be based upon fossilized fragments of an extinct non-hominin ape.[31]
Since the discovery of Java Man in 1893, there has been a trend in paleoanthropology of reducing the number of proposed species of Homo, to the point where H. erectus includes all early (Lower Paleolithic) forms of Homo sufficiently derived from H. habilis and distinct from early H. heidelbergensis (in Africa also known as H. rhodesiensis).[32] It is sometimes considered as a wide-ranging, polymorphous species.[33]
Due to such a wide range of variation, it has been suggested that the ancient
It is debated whether the African H. e. ergaster is a separate species (and that H. erectus evolved in Asia, then migrated to Africa),
- Sima de los Huesos.[44]
- H. e. capensis (Broom 1917): A variant of "Homo capensis",[45] a taxon erected from a skull from South Africa formally classified as a type of "race" but is now considered a representative of the Khoisan.[46]
- H. e. chenchiawoensis: A name utilized in a 2007 review of Chinese archeology; the text suggests that it and gongwanglingensis are contenders in taxonomy[47] (despite this name not appearing in the literature).
- H. e. erectus (Dubois 1891):[48] The Javanese specimens of H. erectus were once classified as a distinct subspecies in the 1970s. The cranium from Trinil is the holotype.[49]
- ICZN.[51]
- H. e. georgicus (Gabounia 1991):[52] This hypothetical subspecific designation unites the D2600 cranium with the remainder of the Dmanisi sample, a connection that was, at the time, controversial and was only suggested if the single-species hypothesis could be proven true.[53]
- H. e. gongwanglingensis: A name utilized in a 2007 review of Chinese archeology; the text suggests that it and chenchiawoensis are contenders in taxonomy.[47] Rukang (1992) notes that this taxon was born in a "subspecies fever".[54]
- H. e. habilis (Leakey, Tobias, and Napier 1964): D.R. Hughes believed that the Olduvai specimens were not distinct enough to be assigned to Australopithecus, so he created this taxon, as an early variation of H. erectus.[55]
- H. e. heidelbergensis (Schoetensack 1908): This taxon was used as an alternative to standard H. heidelbergensis during the middle 20th century, and it was used as a Eurocentric devision of the wider Middle Pleistocene hominin morph.[56]
- H. e. hexianensis (Huang 1982): Established based on the Hexian cranium.[57]
- H. e. hungaricus (Naddeo 2023): A Hungarian paper submitted to a conference lists this subspecies as an alternate name for the Vertesszöllös remains.[58]
- H. e. lantianensis (Ju-Kang 1964): Based on hominin fossils discovered in Lantian, originally named as a species of Sinanthropus and then reclassified as a subspecies.[59]
- Homo sapiens, and Howell (1999) did not assign the species to a genus.[62]
- H. e. mauritanicus (Arambourg 1954): A subspecies that received limited use as a descriptor for the cranial and mandibular material discovered at Tighenif.[61]
- H. e. narmadensis (Sonakia 1984): The name given to the Narmada cranium.[63]
- H. e. newyorkensis (Laitman and Tattersall 2001): A name based on the Sambungmacan 3 cranium.[64]
- H. e. ngandongensis (Sartono 1976): A name that was used in the process of splitting Pithecanthropus into many subspecies.[65]
- H. e. olduvaiensis: A subspecies that described the OH 9 cranium, compared to the Bilzingsleben cranial fragments.[66]
- H. e. pekinensis (Black and Zdansky 1927): Originally assigned the type of Sinanthropus based on a single molar.[67] Antón and Middleton (2023) suggested that Zhoukoudian and Nanjing may be referrable under this name if they exhibit enough discontinuity from H. erectus proper.[50]
- H. e. reilingensis (Czarnetzki 1989): Referring to a single cranial fragment, this subspecies is now considered a member of the Neanderthal lineage.[68]
- H. e. soloensis (Oppenoorth 1932): The original name devised by Oppenoorth for the Ngandong crania.[69]
- H. e. trinilensis (Sartono 1976): A tentative classification scheme, thus making the name conditional and unable for use.[71]
- H. e. wadjakensis (Dubois 1921): A species established by Eugene Dubois based on the Wajak skulls.[72] Pramujiono classified these materials as a subspecies, and incorrectly self-published the name as wajakensis.[73]
- H. e. wushanensis (Huang and Fang 1991): Originally conceived as a hominin, the remains this taxon is founded on are more likely referred to Ponginae.[74][75]
- H. e. yuanmouensis (Li et al. 1977): Based on hominin remains[76] that Antón and Middleton (2023) suggest do not belong to the taxon H. erectus, although they do not provide an alternate classification.[50]
Descendants and synonyms
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2021) |
Homo erectus is the most long-lived species of Homo, having survived for almost two million years. By contrast,
Regarding many
- African H. erectus candidates
- Homo ergaster (or "African H. erectus")
- Homo naledi
- Eurasian H. erectus candidates:
- Homo floresiensis[77]
- Homo rhodesiensis
- the Narmada fossil, discovered in 1982 in Madhya Pradesh, India, was at first suggested as H. erectus or Homo erectus narmadensis.[78]
Meganthropus, based on fossils found in Java, dated to between 1.4 and 0.9 Mya, was tentatively grouped with H. erectus in contrast to earlier interpretations of it as a giant species of early human[32] although older literature has placed the fossils outside of Homo altogether.[79] However, Zanolli et al. (2019) judged Meganthropus to be a distinct genus of extinct ape.[80]
Anatomy
Head
Homo erectus featured a flat face compared to earlier hominins; pronounced brow ridge; and a low, flat skull.[81][82] The presence of sagittal, frontal, and coronal keels, which are small crests that run along these suture lines, has been proposed to be evidence of significant thickening of the skull, specifically the cranial vault. CT scan analyses reveal this to not be the case. However, the squamous part of occipital bone, particularly the internal occipital crest, at the rear of the skull is notably thicker than that of modern humans, likely a basal (ancestral) trait.[82][83] The fossil record indicates that H. erectus was the first human species to have featured a projecting nose, which is generally thought to have evolved in response to breathing dry air in order to retain moisture.[84] American psychologist Lucia Jacobs hypothesized that the projecting nose instead allowed for distinguishing the direction different smells come from (stereo olfaction) to facilitate navigation and long-distance migration.[85]
The average brain size of Asian H. erectus is about 1,000 cc (61 cu in). However, markedly smaller specimens have been found in Dmanisi, Georgia (H. e. georgicus); Koobi Fora and Olorgesailie, Kenya; and possibly Gona, Ethiopia. Overall, H. erectus brain size varies from 546–1,251 cc (33.3–76.3 cu in),[86] which is greater than the range of variation seen in modern humans and chimps, though less than that of gorillas.[citation needed]
In an article published in 2021 titled "Interpopulational variation in human brain size: Implications for hominin cognitive phylogeny," it was found that the brain size of Asian H. erectus over the last 600,000 years overlaps significantly with modern human populations. Significantly, some small brained modern populations showed greater affinity with H. erectus than they did with other large brained and large bodied modern populations. The paper points out methodological flaws in current understanding of brain size increase in human evolution, where species averages are compared with fossils, which overlooks interpopulational variation. It also overlooks the fact that some modern populations have not seen any dramatic brain size increase relative to H. erectus with most of the increase occurring in northern populations, which has the result of obscuring interpopulational variation. As the authors write '...the increase in the mean of H. sapiens cranial capacity is to a large extent due to an increase in the upper limit with a much less pronounced increase in the lower limit relative to our H. erectus sample. And this increase in the upper limit seems to be more pronounced in northern populations – which may be a result of correlated increases in body size in addition to climatic factors'. Consequently, the authors argue that purely based on brain size similarities, Asian H. erectus could be re-classified as a subspecies of H. sapiens, that is H. sapiens soloensis - as was suggested by earlier authors.[87]
Dentally, H. erectus have the thinnest
Body
Like modern humans, H. erectus varied widely in size, ranging from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight, thought to be due to regional differences in climate, mortality rates, or nutrition.[89][90] Among primates, this marked of a response to environmental stressors (phenotypic plasticity) is only demonstrated in modern humans.[91][92][93]
Like modern humans and unlike other
H. erectus had about the same limb configurations and proportions as modern humans, implying humanlike locomotion,
It is largely unclear when human ancestors lost most of their body hair. Genetic analysis suggests that high activity in the
Metabolism
The 1.8 Ma
Based on an average mass of 63 kg (139 lb) for males and 52.3 kg (115 lb) for females, the daily energy expenditure (DEE)—the amount of calories metabolized in one day—was estimated to be about 2271.8 and 1909.5
Bone thickness
The
It is largely unclear what function this could have served. All pathological inducers would leave scarring or some other indicator not normally exhibited in H. erectus. Before more complete skeletons were discovered, Weidenreich suggested H. erectus was a gigantic species, thickened bone required to support the massive weight. It was hypothesized that intense physical activity could have induced bone thickening, but in 1970, human biologist
In 2004, Noel Boaz and Russel Ciochon suggested it was a result of a cultural practice, wherein H. erectus would fight each other with fists, stones, or clubs to settle disputes or battle for mates, since the skull is reinforced in key areas. The mandible is quite robust, capable of absorbing heavy blows (no "glass jaw"); the heavy brow ridge protects the eyes, and transitions into a bar covering the ears, connecting all the way in the back of the skull, meaning blows to any of these regions can be effectively dissipated across the skull; and the sagittal keel protects the top of the braincase. Many skullcaps bear usually debilitating fractures, such as the Peking Man skull X, yet they can show signs of surviving and healing. Anthropologist
Culture
Social structure
The only fossil evidence regarding H. erectus group composition comes from 4 sites outside of Ileret, Kenya, where 97 footprints made 1.5 Mya were likely left by a group of at least 20 individuals. One of these trackways, based on the size of the footprints, may have been an entirely male group, which could indicate they were some specialised task group, such as a hunting or foraging party, or a border patrol. If correct, this would also indicate sexual division of labour, which distinguishes human societies from those of other great apes and social mammalian carnivores. In modern hunter gatherer societies who target large prey items, typically male parties are dispatched to bring down these high-risk animals, and, due to the low success rate, female parties focus on more predictable foods.[99] Based on modern day savanna chimp and baboon group composition and behavior, H. erectus ergaster may have lived in large, multi-male groups in order to defend against large savanna predators in the open and exposed environment.[117] However, dispersal patterns indicate that H. erectus generally avoided areas with high carnivore density.[118] It is possible that male–male bonding and male–female friendships were important societal aspects.[117]
Because H. erectus children had faster brain growth rates, H. erectus likely did not exhibit the same degree of maternal investment or child-rearing behaviours as modern humans.[94]
Because H. erectus males and females are thought to have been about the same size compared to other great apes (exhibit less size-specific sexual dimorphism), it is generally hypothesised that they lived in a monogamous society, as reduced sexual dimorphism in primates is typically correlated with this mating system.[96] However, it is unclear if H. erectus did in fact exhibit humanlike rates of sexual dimorphism.[20] If they did, then it would mean only female height increased from the ancestor species, which could have been caused by a shift in female fertility or diet, and/or reduced pressure on males for large size. This in turn could imply a shift in female behavior which made it difficult for males to maintain a harem, and vice versa.[119]
Food
Increasing brain size is often directly associated with a meatier diet and resultant higher caloric intake.
H. erectus sites frequently are associated with assemblages of medium- to large-sized game, namely
Dentally, H. erectus mouths were not as versatile as those of ancestor species, capable of processing a narrower range of foods. However, tools were likely used to process hard foods, thus affecting the chewing apparatus, and this combination may have instead increased dietary flexibility (though this does not equate to a highly varied diet). Such versatility may have permitted H. erectus to inhabit a range of different environments, and migrate beyond Africa.[88]
In 1999, British anthropologist Richard Wrangham proposed the "cooking hypothesis" which states that H. erectus speciated from the ancestral H. habilis because of fire usage and cooking 2 million years ago to explain the rapid doubling of brain size between these two species in only a 500,000 year timespan, and the sudden appearance of the typical human body plan. Cooking makes protein more easily digestible, speeds up nutrient absorption, and destroys food-borne pathogens, which would have increased the environment's natural carrying capacity, allowing group size to expand, causing selective pressure for sociality, requiring greater brain function.[124][125] However, the fossil record does not associate the emergence of H. erectus with fire usage nor with any technological breakthrough for that matter, and cooking likely did not become a common practice until after 400 kya.[88][113]
Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the
Technology
Tool production
H. erectus is credited with inventing the
The earliest record of Acheulean technology comes from
On Java, H. erectus produced tools from shells at Sangiran[133] and Trinil.[134] Spherical stones, measuring 6–12 cm (2.4–4.7 in) in diameter, are frequently found in African and Chinese Lower Paleolithic sites, and were potentially used as bolas; if correct, this would indicate string and cordage technology.[135]
Fire
H. erectus is credited as the first human ancestor to have used fire, though the timing of this invention is debated mainly because campfires very rarely and very poorly preserve over long periods of time, let alone thousands or millions of years. The earliest claimed fire sites are in Kenya, FxJj20 at Koobi Fora[136][124][137] and GnJi 1/6E in the Chemoigut Formation, as far back as 1.5 Mya,[124][137] and in South Africa, Wonderwerk Cave, 1.7 Mya.[138] The first firekeepers are thought to have simply transported to caves and maintained naturally occurring fires for extended periods of time or only sporadically when the opportunity arose. Maintaining fires would require firekeepers to have knowledge on slow-burning materials such as dung.[124] Fire becomes markedly more abundant in the wider archaeological record after 400,000–300,000 years ago, which can be explained as some advancement in fire management techniques took place at this time[124] or human ancestors only opportunistically used fire until this time.[137][139][88][113] It is possible that firestarting was invented and lost and reinvented multiple times and independently by different communities rather than being invented in one place and spreading throughout the world.[139] The earliest evidence of hearths comes from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, over 700,000 years ago, where fire is recorded in multiple layers in an area close to water, both uncharacteristic of natural fires.[125]
Artificial lighting may have led to increased waking hours—modern humans have about a 16-hour waking period, whereas other apes are generally awake from only sunup to sundown—and these additional hours were probably used for socializing. Because of this, fire usage is probably also linked to the origin of language.[124][125] Artificial lighting may have also made sleeping on the ground instead of the trees possible by keeping terrestrial predators at bay.[125]
Migration into the frigid climate of Ice Age Europe may have only been possible because of fire, but evidence of fire usage in Europe until about 400–300,000 years ago is notably absent.[137] If these early European H. erectus did not have fire, it is largely unclear how they stayed warm, avoided predators, and prepared animal fat and meat for consumption. There was also a lower likelihood of naturally occurring fires due to lightning being less common in areas further north. It is possible that they only knew how to maintain fires in certain settings in the landscapes and prepared food some distance away from home, meaning evidence of fire and evidence of hominin activity are spaced far apart.[125] Alternatively, H. erectus may have only pushed farther north during warmer interglacial periods—thus not requiring fire, food storage, or clothing technology—[140] and their dispersal patterns indicate they generally stayed in warmer lower-to-middle latitudes.[118] It is debated if the H. e. pekinensis inhabitants of Zhoukoudian, Northern China, were capable of controlling fires as early as 770 kya to stay warm in what may have been a relatively cold climate.[141]
Construction
In 1962, a 366 cm × 427 cm × 30 cm (12 ft × 14 ft × 1 ft) circle made with volcanic rocks was discovered in Olduvai Gorge. At 61–76 cm (2–2.5 ft) intervals, rocks were piled up to 15–23 cm (6–9 in) high. British palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey suggested the rock piles were used to support poles stuck into the ground, possibly to support a windbreak or a rough hut. Some modern day nomadic tribes build similar low-lying rock walls to build temporary shelters upon, bending upright branches as poles and using grasses or animal hide as a screen.[143] Dating to 1.75 Mya, it is the oldest claimed evidence of architecture.[144]
In Europe, evidence of constructed dwelling structures dating to or following the
The earliest evidence of cave habitation is Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, about 1.6 Mya, but evidence of cave use globally is sporadic until about 600 kya.[146]
Clothing
It is largely unclear when clothing was invented, with the earliest estimate stretching as far back as 3 Mya to compensate for a lack of insulating body hair.
Seafaring
Acheulean artifacts discovered on isolated islands that were never connected to land in the Pleistocene may show seafaring by H. erectus as early as 1 Mya in Indonesia. They had arrived on the islands of Flores, Timor, and Roti, which would have necessitated crossing the Lombok Strait (the Wallace Line), at least before 800 kya. It is also possible they were the first European mariners as well and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar between North Africa and Spain. A 2021 genetic analysis of these island populations of H. erectus found no evidence of interbreeding with modern humans.[148] Seafaring capability would show H. erectus had a great capacity for planning, likely months in advance of the trip.[149][150]
Similarly,
Healthcare
The earliest probable example of infirming sick group members is a 1.77 Mya H. e. georgicus specimen who had lost all but one tooth due to age or
The 1.5 Mya Turkana boy was diagnosed with juvenile spinal disc herniation, and, because this specimen was still growing, this caused some scoliosis (abnormal curving of the spine). These usually cause recurrent lower back pain and sciatica (pain running down the leg), and likely restricted Turkana boy in walking, bending, and other daily activities. The specimen appears to have survived into adolescence, which evidences advanced group care.[154]
The 1,000–700 kya Java man specimen presents a noticeable
Art and rituals
An engraved Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL with geometric markings could possibly be evidence of the earliest art-making, dating back to 546–436 kya. Art-making capabilities could be considered evidence of symbolic thinking, which is associated with modern cognition and behavior.[134][156][157][158] In 1976, American archeologist Alexander Marshack asserted that engraved lines on an ox rib, associated with Acheulean lithics, from Pech de l'Azé, France, are similar to a meander design found in modern human Upper Paleolithic cave art.[159] Three ostrich eggshell beads associated with Achuelian lithics were found in northwestern Africa, the earliest disc beads ever found, and Acheulian disc beads have also been found in France and Israel.[149] The Middle Pleistocene "Venus of Tan-Tan" and "Venus of Berekhat Ram" are postulated to been crafted by H. erectus to resemble a human form. They were mostly formed by natural weathering, but slightly modified to emphasize certain grooves to suggest hairline, limbs, and eyes.[160][161] The former has traces of pigments on the front side, possibly indicating it was colored.[160]
H. erectus was also the earliest human to have intentionally collected red-colored pigments, namely
In 1935, Jewish-German anthropologist Franz Weidenreich speculated that the inhabitants of the Chinese Zhoukoudian Peking Man site were members of some Lower Paleolithic Skull Cult because the skulls all showed fatal blows to the head, breaking in of the foramen magnum at the base of the skull, by-and-large lack of preserved facial aspects, an apparently consistent pattern of breaking on the mandible, and a lack of post-cranial remains (elements that are not the skull). He believed that the inhabitants were headhunters, and smashed open the skulls and ate the brains of their victims.[165][159] However, scavenging animals and natural forces such as flooding can also inflict the same kind of damage to skulls,[159] and there is not enough evidence to suggest manhunting or cannibalism.[166]
In 1999, British science writers Marek Kohn and Steven Mithen said that many hand axes exhibit no wear and were produced en masse, and concluded that these symmetrical, tear-drop shaped lithics functioned primarily as display tools so males could prove their fitness to females in some courting ritual, and were discarded afterwards.[167] However, an apparent lack of reported wearing is likely due to a lack of use-wear studies, and only a few sites yield an exorbitant sum of hand axes likely due to gradual accumulation over generations instead of mass production.[131]
Language
In 1984, the vertebral column of the 1.6 Mya adolescent
Neurologically, all Homo have similarly configured brains, and, likewise, the Broca's and Wernicke's areas (in charge of sentence formulation and speech production in modern humans) of H. erectus were comparable to those of modern humans. However, this is not indicative of anything in terms of speech capability as even large chimpanzees can have similarly expanded Broca's area, and it is unclear if these areas served as language centers in archaic humans.[172] A 1-year-old H. erectus specimen shows that an extended childhood to allow for brain growth, which is a prerequisite in language acquisition, was not exhibited in this species.[110]
The
Extinction
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The last known occurrence of Homo erectus is 117,000–108,000 years ago in
In 2020 researchers reported that Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis lost more than half of their climate niche – climate they were adapted to – with no corresponding reduction in physical range, just before extinction and that climate change played a substantial role in extinctions of past Homo species.[177][178][179]
Fossils
The lower cave of China's Zhoukoudian Cave is one of the most important archaeological sites worldwide.[180] There have been remains of 45 Homo erectus individuals found and thousands of tools recovered.[180] Most of these remains were lost during World War 2, with the exception of two postcranial elements that were rediscovered in China in 1951 and four human teeth from 'Dragon Bone Hill'.[180]
New evidence has shown that Homo erectus does not have uniquely thick vault bones, as was previously thought.[181] Testing showed that neither Asian nor African Homo erectus had uniquely large vault bones.[181]
Individual fossils
Some of the major Homo erectus fossils:
- Indonesia (island of Java):
- China ("Hexian
- Kenya: KNM ER 3883, KNM ER 3733
- Vietnam: Northern, Tham Khuyen,[183] Hoa Binh[citation needed]
- Republic of Georgia: Dmanisi collection ("Homo erectus georgicus")
- Ethiopia: Daka calvaria
- Eritrea: Buia cranium (possibly H. ergaster)[184]
- Denizli Province, Turkey: Kocabas fossil[106]
- Drimolen, South Africa: DNH 134[185]
Phylogeny
A cladogram of Homo erectus is as follows.[186] It is indicated how many million years ago the clades diverged.
Homo (2.85) |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Homo erectus was originally African. The extant Homo heidelbergensis (
Gallery
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Homo erectus tautavelensisskull.
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Senckenberg Museum.
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A reconstruction based on evidence from the Daka Member, Ethiopia
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Original fossils of Pithecanthropus erectus (now Homo erectus) found in Java in 1891.
See also
General:
- List of fossil sites (with link directory)
- List of human evolution fossils (with images)
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Further reading
- Leakey R, Walker A (November 1985). "Homo Erectus Unearthed". OCLC 643483454.
- Sigmon BA, Cybulski JS (1981). Homo erectus: Papers in Honor of Davidson Black. University of Toronto Press. JSTOR 10.3138/j.ctvcj2jdw.11.
- Theunissen B, Theunissen LT (2012). Eugène Dubois and the Ape-Man from Java. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9789400922099.
External links
- Homo erectus Origins – Exploring the Fossil Record – Bradshaw Foundation
- Archaeology Info Archived 16 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Homo erectus – The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program
- Possible co-existence with Homo Habilis – BBC News
- John Hawks's discussion of the Kocabas fossil
- Peter Brown's Australian and Asian Palaeoanthropology
- The Age of Homo erectus – Interactive Map of the Journey of Homo erectus out of Africa
- Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).