Homologous chromosome
A pair of homologous chromosomes, or homologs, are a set of one maternal and one paternal
Overview
Chromosomes are linear arrangements of condensed deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and histone proteins, which form a complex called chromatin.[2] Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the other is inherited from the organism's father. After mitosis occurs within the daughter cells, they have the correct number of genes which are a mix of the two parents' genes. In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of one set of each homologous chromosome pair, as compared to tetraploid organisms which may have two sets of each homologous chromosome pair. The alleles on the homologous chromosomes may be different, resulting in different phenotypes of the same genes. This mixing of maternal and paternal traits is enhanced by crossing over during meiosis, wherein lengths of chromosomal arms and the DNA they contain within a homologous chromosome pair are exchanged with one another.[3]
History
Early in the 1900s, William Bateson and Reginald Punnett were studying genetic inheritance and they noted that some combinations of alleles appeared more frequently than others. That data and information was further explored by Thomas Morgan. Using test cross experiments, he revealed that, for a single parent, the alleles of genes near to one another along the length of the chromosome move together. Using this logic he concluded that the two genes he was studying were located on homologous chromosomes. Later on during the 1930s, Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock were studying meiosis in corn cells and examining gene loci on corn chromosomes.[2] Creighton and McClintock discovered that the new allele combinations present in the offspring and the event of crossing over were directly related.[2] This proved interchromosomal genetic recombination.[2]
Structure
Homologous chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism that have similar genes, although not necessarily identical.[4] There are two main properties of homologous chromosomes: 1) the length of chromosomal arms and 2) the placement of the centromere.[5]
The actual length of the arm, in accordance with the gene locations, is critically important for proper alignment. Centromere placement on the chromosome can be characterized by four main arrangements, either
Since homologous chromosomes are not identical and do not originate from the same organism, they are different from sister chromatids. Sister chromatids result after DNA replication has occurred, and thus are identical, side-by-side duplicates of each other.[7]
In humans
Note that the pair of sex chromosomes may or may not be homologous, depending on the sex of the individual. For instance, females contain XX, thus have a homologous pair of sex chromosomes. This means that females have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in total (i.e., 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes (autosomes), 1 pair of sex chromosomes). Conversely, males contain XY, which means that they have a non-homologous pair of sex chromosomes as their 23rd pair of chromosomes.
In humans, the 22 pairs of homologous autosomal chromosomes contain the same genes but code for different traits in their allelic forms, as one was inherited from the mother and one from the father.[8]
So, humans have two sets of 23 chromosomes in each cell that contains a nucleus. One set of 23 chromosomes (n) is from the mother (22 autosomes, 1 sex chromosome (X only)) and one set of 23 chromosomes (n) is from the father (22 autosomes, 1 sex chromosome (X or Y)). Ultimately, this means that humans are
Functions
Homologous chromosomes are important in the processes of meiosis and mitosis. They allow for the recombination and random segregation of genetic material from the mother and father into new cells.[9]
In meiosis
Meiosis is a round of two cell divisions that results in four haploid daughter cells that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Prophase I
In
In the process of crossing-over, genes are exchanged by the breaking and union of homologous portions of the chromosomes' lengths.[7] Structures called chiasmata are the site of the exchange. Chiasmata physically link the homologous chromosomes once crossing over occurs and throughout the process of chromosomal segregation during meiosis.[7] Both the non-crossover and crossover types of recombination function as processes for repairing DNA damage, particularly double-strand breaks. At the diplotene stage of prophase I the synaptonemal complex disassembles before which will allow the homologous chromosomes to separate, while the sister chromatids stay associated by their centromeres.[7]
Metaphase I
In
Anaphase I
In anaphase I of meiosis I the homologous chromosomes are pulled apart from each other. The homologs are cleaved by the enzyme
Meiosis II
After the tetrads of homologous chromosomes are separated in meiosis I, the sister chromatids from each pair are separated. The two haploid daughter cells (the number of chromosomes has been reduced to half: earlier two sets of chromosomes were present, but now each set exists in two different daughter cells that have arisen from the single diploid parent cell by meiosis I) resulting from meiosis I undergo another cell division in meiosis II but without another round of chromosomal replication. The sister chromatids in the two daughter cells are pulled apart during anaphase II by nuclear spindle fibers, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.[2]
In mitosis
Homologous chromosomes do not function the same in mitosis as they do in meiosis. Prior to every single mitotic division a cell undergoes, the chromosomes in the parent cell replicate themselves. The homologous chromosomes within the cell will ordinarily not pair up and undergo genetic recombination with each other.[10] Instead, the replicants, or sister chromatids, will line up along the metaphase plate and then separate in the same way as meiosis II – by being pulled apart at their centromeres by nuclear mitotic spindles.[11] If any crossing over does occur between sister chromatids during mitosis, it does not produce any new recombinant genotypes.[2]
In somatic cells
Homologous pairing in most contexts will refer to germline cells, however also takes place in somatic cells. For example, in humans, somatic cells have very tightly regulated homologous pairing (separated into chromosomal territories, and pairing at specific loci under control of developmental signalling). Other species however (notably Drosophila) exhibit homologous pairing much more frequently. In Drosophila the homologous pairing supports a gene regulatory phenomenon called transvection in which an allele on one chromosome affects the expression of the homologous allele on the homologous chromosome.[12] One notable function of this is the sexually dimorphic regulation of X-linked genes.[13]
Problems
There are severe repercussions when chromosomes do not segregate properly. Faulty segregation can lead to
Nondisjunction
Proper homologous chromosome separation in meiosis I is crucial for sister chromatid separation in meiosis II.[14] A failure to separate properly is known as nondisjunction. There are two main types of nondisjunction that occur: trisomy and monosomy. Trisomy is caused by the presence of one additional chromosome in the zygote as compared to the normal number, and monosomy is characterized by the presence of one fewer chromosome in the zygote as compared to the normal number. If this uneven division occurs in meiosis I, then none of the daughter cells will have proper chromosomal distribution and non-typical effects can ensue, including Down's syndrome.[15] Unequal division can also occur during the second meiotic division. Nondisjunction which occurs at this stage can result in normal daughter cells and deformed cells.[5]
Other uses
While the main function of homologous chromosomes is their use in nuclear division, they are also used in repairing
Relevant research
Current and future research on the subject of homologous chromosome is heavily focused on the roles of various proteins during recombination or during DNA repair. In a recently published article by Pezza et al.[
There is ongoing research concerning the ability of homologous chromosomes to repair double-strand DNA breaks. Researchers are investigating the possibility of exploiting this capability for regenerative medicine.[18] This medicine could be very prevalent in relation to cancer, as DNA damage is thought to be contributor to carcinogenesis. Manipulating the repair function of homologous chromosomes might allow for bettering a cell's damage response system. While research has not yet confirmed the effectiveness of such treatment, it may become a useful therapy for cancer.[19]
See also
- Homologous recombination
- Mendelian inheritance
- Developmental biology
- Synapsis
- Non-disjunction
- Heredity
References
- ISBN 978-1-4160-2255-8. Archivedfrom the original on 2015-11-29. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
- ^ ISBN 0-7167-4939-4.
- ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
- ^ Himabindu Sreenivasulu 23 [Dr. Himabindu Sreenivasulu, "Genetics: Ask Health Professionals", 2023, No Publication, https://microsoftstart.msn.com/en-us/health/ask-professionals/in-expert-answers-on-genetics/in-genetics?questionid=u6mcd5ej&type=condition&source=bingmainline_conditionqna]
- ^ a b Klug, William S. (2012). Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson. pp. 21–22.
- ISBN 9780321540980.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4160-2255-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4292-3413-9.
- ^ Gregory MJ. "The Biology Web". Clinton Community College – State University of New York. Archived from the original on 2001-11-16.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87893-978-7.
- ^ "The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial". The Biology Project. University of Arizona. Oct 2004. Archived from the original on 2018-09-22. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
- from the original on 2020-10-17. Retrieved 2021-03-23.
- from the original on 2021-12-27. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
- ^ S2CID 31929047.
- ^ Tissot, Robert; Kaufman, Elliot. "Chromosomal Inheritance". Human Genetics. University of Illinois at Chicago. Archived from the original on 1999-10-10.
- ^ PMID 8972207.
- PMID 14667414.
- PMID 23478019.
- S2CID 3012823.
Further reading
- Gilbert SF (2003). Developmental biolog. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-258-5.
- OpenStaxCollege (25 Apr 2013). "Meiosis". Rice University. Archived from the original on 16 November 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.