Homophobia
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Homophobia encompasses a range of negative
Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual orientations that are non-heterosexual.[2][3][7] Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia, e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia, and internalized homophobia, experienced by people who have same-sex attractions, regardless of how they identify.[8][9]
Negative attitudes toward identifiable LGBT groups have similar yet specific names:
Etymology
Although sexual attitudes tracing back to
Coined by George Weinberg, a psychologist, in the 1960s,[16] the term homophobia is a blend of (1) the word homosexual, itself a mix of neo-classical morphemes, and (2) phobia from the Greek φόβος, phóbos, meaning "fear", "morbid fear" or "aversion".[17][18][19] Weinberg is credited as the first person to have used the term in speech.[15] The word homophobia first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American pornographic magazine Screw, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.[15]
Conceptualizing anti-LGBT prejudice as a
[A] phobia about homosexuals.... It was a fear of homosexuals which seemed to be associated with a fear of contagion, a fear of reducing the things one fought for — home and family. It was a religious fear and it had led to great brutality as fear always does.[15]
In 1981, homophobia was used for the first time in The Times (of London) to report that the General Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.[25]
However, when taken literally, homophobia may be a problematic term. Professor David A. F. Haaga says that contemporary usage includes "a wide range of
Types
Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.[27] There were also ideas to classify homophobia and other types of bigotry as intolerant personality disorder.[28]
In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association, recognizing the power of the stigma against homosexuality, issued the following statement, reaffirmed by the Board of Trustees, July 2011:[29]
Whereas homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) calls on all international health organizations, psychiatric organizations, and individual psychiatrists in other countries to urge the repeal in their own countries of legislation that penalizes homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. Further, APA calls on these organizations and individuals to do all that is possible to decrease the stigma related to homosexuality wherever and whenever it may occur.
Institutional
Religious attitudes
Some world religions contain anti-homosexual teachings, while other religions have varying degrees of ambivalence, neutrality, or incorporate teachings that regard homosexuals as
Christianity and the Bible
Passages commonly interpreted as condemning homosexuality or same-gender sexual relations are found in both
The official teaching of the
Islam and Sharia
In some cases, the distinction between religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia is not clear, a key example being territories under
In 2009, the
In 2001,
In some regions, gay people have been
State-sponsored
State-sponsored homophobia includes the criminalization and penalization of homosexuality, hate speech from government figures, and other forms of discrimination, violence, persecution of LGBT people.[60]
Past governments
In
Although bisexuality was accepted as normal human behavior in Ancient China,
The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Soviet Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place.[67] Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by Joseph Stalin and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the Yeltsin era.
In Nazi Germany, gay men were persecuted and approximately five to fifteen thousand were imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps.[68]
Current governments
Homosexuality is illegal in 74 countries. However, according to the North Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."
Robert Mugabe, the former president of Zimbabwe, waged a violent campaign against LGBT people, arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.[72] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair.[73] He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"[74] In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.[73] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.[75][76]
In
Since 2006, under
Internalized
Internalized homophobia refers to negative stereotypes, beliefs, stigma, and prejudice about homosexuality and LGBT people that a person with same-sex attraction turns inward on themselves, whether or not they identify as LGBT.[15][81][8] The affect of these ideas depends on how much and which they have consciously and subconsciously internalized.[82] These negative beliefs can be mitigated with education, life experience, and therapy,[8][83] especially with gay-friendly psychotherapy/analysis.[84] Internalized homophobia also applies to conscious or unconscious behaviors which a person feels the need to promote or conform to cultural expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This can include repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". Other expressions of internalized homophobia can also be subtle. Some less overt behaviors may include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles.[15] Some researchers also apply this label to LGBT people who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions acceptable in place of same-sex marriage.[85]
Some studies have shown that people who are homophobic are more likely to have repressed homosexual desires. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half said they were homophobic by experience, with self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia) were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.[86][87] Weinstein and colleagues[88] arrived at similar results when researchers found that students who came from controlling and homophobic homes were most likely to reveal repressed homosexual attraction. The researchers said that this explained why some religious leaders who denounce homosexuality are later revealed to have secret homosexual relations. One co-author said, "In many cases these are people who are at war with themselves and they are turning this internal conflict outward."[89] A 2016 eye-tracking study showed that heterosexual men with high negative impulse reactions toward homosexuals gazed for longer periods at homosexual imagery than other heterosexual men.[90] According to Cheval et al. (2016), these findings reinforce the necessity to consider that homophobia might reflect concerns about sexuality in general and not homosexuality in particular.[91] In contrast, Jesse Marczyk argued in Psychology Today that homophobia is not repressed homosexuality.[92]
Researcher Iain R. Williamson finds the term homophobia to be "highly problematic," but for reasons of continuity and consistency with the majority of other publications on the issue retains its use rather than using more accurate but obscure terminology.
Social
The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay. Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.[94][95] For this reason, homophobia is allegedly rampant in sports, and in the subculture of its supporters that is considered stereotypically male, such as association football and rugby.[96]
Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.[97] Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.[98]
Distribution of attitude
Homophobia is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced
The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay[100][101] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.[102] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is said to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.[103] Homophobic bullying is also very common in schools in the United Kingdom.[104] At least 445 LGBT Brazilians were either murdered or committed suicide in 2017.[105]
In some cases, the works of authors who merely have the word "Gay" in their name (Gay Talese, Peter Gay) or works about things also contain the name (Enola Gay) have been destroyed because of a perceived pro-homosexual bias.[106]
In the United States, attitudes vary on the basis of partisan identification.
In a 1998 address,
Economic cost
There are at least two studies which indicate that homophobia may have a negative economic impact for the countries where it is widespread. In these countries there is a
As soon as 2005, an editorial from the
M. V. Lee Badgett, an economist at the
The LGBT activist Adebisi Alimi, in a preliminary estimation, has calculated that the economic loss due to homophobia in Nigeria is about 1% of its GDP. Taking into account that in 2015 homosexuality is still illegal in 36 of the 54 African countries, the money loss due to homophobia in the continent could amount to hundreds of millions of dollars every year.[112]
Another study regarding socioecological measurement of homophobia and its public health impact for 158 countries was conducted in 2018. It found that the prejudice against gay people has a worldwide economic cost of $119.1 billion. Economical loss in Asia was 88.29 billion dollars due to homophobia, and in Latin America & the Caribbean it was 8.04 billion dollars. Economical cost in East Asia and Middle Asia was 10.85 billion dollars. Economical cost in Middle East and North Africa was 16.92 billion dollars. The researcher suggested that a 1% decrease in the level of homophobia is correlated with a 10% increase in the gross domestic product per capita – though this does not imply causation.[117]
A 2018 study by
Countermeasures
Most international
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as
One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the
In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Successful preventative strategies against homophobic prejudice and bullying in schools have included teaching pupils about historical figures who were gay, or who suffered discrimination because of their sexuality.[126]
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.[127] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular stated:
"Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behavior earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias prevents the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs (
sexually transmitted diseases)."[127]
Drawing upon research by Arizona State University Professor Elizabeth Segal, University of Memphis professors Robin Lennon-Dearing and Elena Delavega argued in a 2016 article published in the Journal of Homosexuality that homophobia could be reduced through exposure (learning about LGBT experiences), explanation (understanding the different challenges faced by LGBT people), and experience (putting themselves in situations experienced by LGBT people by working alongside LGBT co-workers or volunteering at an LGBT community center).[128]
Criticism of meaning and purpose
Distinctions and proposed alternatives
Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people. Some of these alternatives show more semantic transparency while others do not include -phobia:
- Homoerotophobia, being a possible precursor term to homophobia, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.
- The etymology of homophobia citing the union of homos and phobos is the basis for LGBT historian John Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion in 1980 of the alternative homosexophobia.[129]
- Homonegativity is based on the term homonegativism used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research in order to avoid homophobia, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.[130]
- norm[citation needed] and therefore superior.
- Sexual prejudice – Researcher at the University of California, Davis, Gregory M. Herek preferred sexual prejudice as being descriptive, free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.[132][133] He compared homophobia, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice, and, in preferring the third term, noted that homophobia was "probably more widely used and more often criticized." He also observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."
Non-neutral phrasing
Use of homophobia, homophobic, and homophobe has been criticized as
Psychologists Gregory M. Herek and Beverly A. Greene also find fault with the term "homophobia:" "Technically, homophobia means fear of sameness, yet its usage implies a fear of homosexuals....the –phobia suffix implies a specific kind of fear... Fear or aversion may comprise one component of beliefs about homosexuality, but other factors are unquestionably important." Several alternative terms have been offered ...These include homonegativism (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980), homosexism (Hansen, 1982), and heterosexism (Herek, 1986a). Unfortunately, none has gained widespread acceptance."[135]
However, neutral use of the term has gained acceptance and usage over time since the
Heterophobia
The term heterophobia is sometimes used to describe
The term heterophobia is confusing for some people for several reasons. On the one hand, some look at it as just another of the many me-too social constructions that have arisen in the pseudoscience of victimology in recent decades. (Many of us recall John Money's 1995 criticism of the ascendancy of victimology and its negative impact on sexual science.) Others look at the parallelism between heterophobia and homophobia, and suggest that the former trivializes the latter... For others, it is merely a curiosity or parallel-construction word game. But for others still, it is part of both the recognition and politicization of heterosexuals' cultural interests in contrast to those of gays—particularly where those interests are perceived to clash.
Stephen M. White and Louis R. Franzini introduced the related term heteronegativism to refer to the range of negative feelings that some gay individuals may hold toward heterosexuals. This term is preferred to heterophobia because it does not imply extreme or irrational fear.[141] The Merriam-Webster dictionary of the English language defines heterophobia as "irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against heterosexual people".[142]
See also
- Corrective rape
- Discrimination against non-binary people
- Faggot (slang)
- Gay panic defense
- Homosexual agenda
- Heteropatriarchy
- Homophobia in the African American community
- Homophobia in the Asian American community
- Homophobia in the Black British community
- Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida (pamphlet)
- Lavender scare
- Liberal homophobia
- Minority stress
- Riddle scale
- Sexual repression
- Stop Murder Music
- Yogyakarta Principles
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- ^ Byers, Dylan (26 November 2012). "AP nixes 'homophobia', 'ethnic cleansing'". Politico. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
- ^ a b c Raymond J. Noonan (November 6, 1999). "Heterophobia: The Evolution of an Idea". Dr. Ray Noonan's 1999 Conference Presentations. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-910311-20-5.[page needed]
- ^ The Complete Dictionary of Sexuality by Robert T. Francoeur[page needed]
- PMID 10203070.
- ^ "heterophobia". Merriam-Webster (Online ed.). Retrieved 15 March 2022.
Further reading
- Social Psychological and Personality Science (26 December 2019). "Gender norms affect attitudes towards gay men and lesbian women globally" (Press release). Washington, DC: EurekAlert!.
- Gregory M. Herek (2001). Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism.
- Rictor Norton; Louie Crew (ed.) (November 1974). The Homophobic Imagination.
- Rabbi The Huffington Post.
- Irina Echarry (May 19, 2009). Homophobia Is the Problem, Not Gays, Havana Times.
- Ahmady, Kameel Et al 2020: Forbidden Tale (A comprehensive study on lesbian, gay, bisexuals (LGB) in Iran). AP Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany.
External links
- Homophobia at Curlie
- Rockway Institute Archived 2008-05-17 at the Wayback Machine at Alliant International University (LGBT research in the public interest)
- European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe, European Parliament, 2006
- Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico, Pan American Health Organization, 2008
- Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity, United Nations Human Rights Council, 2011
- Living Free and Equal: What States Are Doing to Tackle Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex People, United Nations, 2016
- Breaking the Silence: Criminalisation of Lesbians and Bisexual Women and its Impacts. Human Dignity Trust, May 2016.
- In Some Countries, Being Gay Or Lesbian Can Land You In Prison...Or Worse. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 2020