Honolulu Volcanics
Honolulu Volcanics | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Coordinates | 21°22′N 157°48′W / 21.37°N 157.8°W[1] |
Geography | |
The Honolulu Volcanics are a group of
Volcanic activity began less than one million years ago and occurred at between 40 and 30 separate volcanic vents, some of which are submarine. Sea level varied during the activity of the volcanic field, and some volcanic eruptions have been dated through correlation with individual sea level fluctuations. The field erupted various kinds of lavas of mostly basaltic type with a high content of xenoliths. During eruptions, ascending magma often underwent interactions with water and thus caused steam explosions and the formation of particular volcanic structures such as tuff cones. The last eruption took place 35,000 or 76,000 years ago and future hazardous eruptions are possible.
Geography and geomorphology
The Honolulu Volcanics are a series of volcanoes in the southeastern sector of
The system takes its name from Honolulu, the capital of Hawaiʻi,[7] as craters are scattered in and around the city.[8] The volcanic system includes well-known landmarks of Honolulu such as Diamond Head, Koko Head, Punchbowl Crater,[3] Rabbit Island, Tantalus,[9] Hanauma Bay (notable as a snorkeling site)[10] and the Mokapu Peninsula,[11] which is the location of Marine Corps Base Hawaiʻi.[12] The United States military has made use of some of the volcanic islands that were formed by the Honolulu Volcanics.[13] The Koko area is designated as the Koko Head Regional Park[14] and Hanauma Bay is also a state park.[15] Parts of this system are among the best known volcanic vents of Hawaiʻi.[16]
About 30–40 vents have been identified.[17] Most cinder cones on Oʻahu are quite large, over 76 metres (250 ft) high and up to 0.80 kilometres (0.5 mi) wide.[18] Some of the lava flows filled deep valleys cut into the older Koʻolau volcano[19] and displaced streams that previously ran through these valleys; for example, water passing over a lava flow in Kamanaiki Valley forms a waterfall.[20] Together with sediments coming down from the mountains and coral reef growth, the deposits of the Honolulu Volcanics have formed the coastal plain on which the city of Honolulu and military installations are built.[21]
The vents of the Honolulu Volcanics follow northeastward-trending
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Hanauma Bay in the foreground, Koko is in the middle
-
Diamond Head to the left, Punchbowl in the middle
Description of individual volcanoes
Most of the present-day shoreline of
Diamond Head is a 1,700-metre (5,600 ft) (rim-to-rim) wide[40] typical tuff cone with a wide and not overly deep crater that forms a prominent promontory east of Honolulu.[38] Inland from Diamond Head lie the Kaimukī and Mauʻumae cones,[51] which appear to come from a shared fissure.[38] Mauʻumae features a lava flow[52] and Kaimukī is an unusual lava cone with a summit crater.[53] Its slopes are gentle and lava ponded against topographical obstacles.[54] The Kaimukī and Kaʻau cinder cones together with Mauʻumae and Diamond Head form the Kaʻau or Kaimukī rift zone;[55] the Kaʻau crater lies close to the crest of the Koʻolau Range and is filled by a swamp that drains into Waimao stream.[56] Punchbowl Crater rises north of[57] and at the centre of Honolulu and is a good outlook to the city and its surroundings.[7]
The Mokapu peninsula was formed by Honolulu Volcanics and includes the three volcanic vents of Puʻu Hawaiʻiloa, Pyramid Rock and Ulapaʻu Head; additional vents form islets off the peninsula,
Salt Lake Crater
Geology
The Honolulu Volcanics developed on the 2.3 million year old
The Honolulu Volcanics constitute a late stage of volcanism
As Hawaiian volcanoes grow, they start to sink under their weight. As volcanism moves along the Hawaiian chain, the
The terrain that the volcanoes developed on includes both old volcanic rocks of the Koʻolau volcano, sediments of the coastal plains,
Composition
The
Coral fragments have been found in Koko and Salt Lake rocks,
In Punchbowl Crater, where the rocks have been quarried, they have a brown to yellow colour.
Origin of the rocks
The Honolulu Volcanics rocks originate at greater depths than the rocks from Koʻolau volcano and their composition is fairly dissimilar as well,
Groundwater content
Groundwater contained in Honolulu Volcanics rocks, while not voluminous, is important in some areas such as Maunawili Valley.[105] Moreover, impermeable tuff layers can hold groundwater in rock layers above them.[53] However, Koʻolau volcanic rocks contain most of the groundwater on Oʻahu,[106] and most Honolulu Volcanics have little significance.[74] Some groundwater in Honolulu Volcanics rocks is saline, and has been used both as a water source for a sea-life park at Makapuʻu and for the discharge of salty wastewaters.[105]
Eruption history
Chronology
The activity of the Honolulu Volcanics began less than one million years ago[107] during the late Pleistocene and Holocene,[2] after volcanic activity at Koʻolau had ceased and the volcano been substantially eroded. The first eruptions occurred within the Koʻolau caldera and the youngest in the far southeastern part of Oʻahu, coinciding with the Koko Rift.[22] There is otherwise little evidence for a spatial pattern in the volcanic activity, with each rift having eruptions widely spaced in time.[108] The lava flows from Honolulu Volcanics have been used to construct a history of variations of Earth's magnetic field.[109]
Eruptions of the Honolulu Volcanics have been correlated to
First dating efforts yielded ages of Pleistocene-Holocene based on
Volcanic activity occurred in two pulses, one between 800,000 and 250,000 years ago and the other in the last 120,000 years, with a hiatus in between the two pulses.[120] Sometimes the vents of the Sugar Loaf, Tantalus Peak and Koko Rift area are classified separately from the other vents of the Honolulu Volcanics as they are usually less than 100,000 years old.[121] Volcanic eruptions in the Koko Rift occurred between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago;[44] it is not clear whether Koko Rift or Tantalus Rift erupted last, as ages of 35,000 and 85,000 years before present have been obtained on the Koko Rift while the Tantalus Rift has yielded ages of 76,000 ± 1,000 years ago,[122] and the two rifts are clearly unrelated to each other.[123] The average recurrence interval for eruptions in the Honolulu Volcanics is about 35,000 years assuming that the younger ages for the Koko Rift are correct.[122]
Eruption characteristics
Many eruptions were highly
The field has also seen many
Volcanic rocks of Honolulu Volcanics include
Activity at specific vents:
- At Diamond Head, eruptions commenced underwater and first deposited white rocks formed mostly by reworked corals.[137] Proper tuff layers were emplaced on top of this unit.[138]
- The formation of Kaʻau Crater was also accompanied by phreatic activity that deposited alluvial tuffs.[139] Some eruptions – such as those of the Kaʻau, Mōkōlea and Training School vents – may have occurred as one sequence over a 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) long line.[120]
- Intense explosive eruptions took place when magma erupted underwater, forming Hanauma Bay.[14] The eruption took place in several stages; pauses between these stages lasted no more than a few months,[140] and erosion was already underway during the eruption.[141] Hanauma Bay was colonized by coral reefs after it formed, and marine benches developed within the bay;[41] the exact origin of these benches is often not clear.[42] The eruption of Kahauloa was synchronous to that of Hanauma Bay.[141]
- Koko Head was formed by the Koko Tuff. Later gullies which had been carved into Koko Head by erosion.[144]
- Punchbowl Crater formed from the fallout of an eruption column. Material from the column fell onto the coral plain where the vent was located, forming the crater.[132]
- The formation of the Sugarloaf flow was accompanied by tephra fallout. The tephra reached over 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) thickness 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) away in what is now downtown Honolulu,
- Ulupaʻu Head crater contained a lake,[148] which was once the largest lake of Hawaiʻi with a surface area of 0.5–0.6 square kilometres (0.19–0.23 sq mi).[149] It persisted for a long time[148] during the Middle Pleistocene[150] until the sea breached the crater rim.[149] A number of bird fossils have been found in the lake deposits.[151] Rano Kau on Easter Island resembles the former Ulupaʻu Head lake.[148]
Many vents of the Honolulu Volcanics are furrowed;
Youngest activity and hazards
The youngest eruptions of the whole field took place either 30,000[84] or 76,000 years ago,[122] making it the youngest rejuvenated volcanism in Hawaii.[123] Some of the youngest volcanics of Honolulu Volcanics were once considered 5,000 years old,[1] with an age of 7,000 years attributed to a volcanic event at Hanauma Bay[14] and another of 10,000 years to the Kaupō flow.[153] However, radiometric dating has not yielded ages younger than 31,000–43,000 years old,[1] and most age estimates of less than 30,000 years ago are misinterpreted.[121] There is no evidence in oral tradition for eruptions during historical times.[154]
Future eruptions of Honolulu Volcanics are possible,[155] but the likelihood of a new event in the next hundred or thousand years is considered to be so small as to be negligible;[156] it is probably comparable to the Kohala peninsula on Hawaiʻi, the lowest risk area of the active island.[157] Additionally, only small areas of Oʻahu are likely to be affected by an eruption.[156]
Any future eruption is likely to occur in the southeastern sector of Oʻahu and will be of small volume,[156] involving the emplacement of cinders, lava flows and mudflows[71] with characteristics similar to those of past Honolulu Volcanics eruptions:[6]
- Tephra fall would be drawn by winds in a most likely southwestward direction, and could depending on the vent location fall over downtown Honolulu and Pearl Harbor;rainfall, forming mudflows which owing to their high speed and density can be hazardous.[160]
- Steam explosions could generate lateral blasts, which can spread to distances of 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from vents at high speed and transport dangerous heat and debris. Such lateral blasts may have occurred when Diamond Head, Koko Head and Punchbowl formed.[159]
- Lava flows can cause severe property damage as they can destroy structures in their way, but owing to their slowness are seldom a threat to life; additionally a lava flow would most likely be preceded by other eruptive phenomena which would drive people away from the hazard zone before a lava flow can become a threat.[161]
Geothermal power prospecting
The Mokapu Peninsula has been prospected for the presence of geothermal power resources, but the presence of such resources was judged to be unlikely. Short-lasting volcanism typical for Honolulu Volcanics is unlikely to leave remnant heat resources.[162] The only anomalously warm springs in the area are found within the Koʻolau caldera and are related to that volcanic system rather than the Honolulu Volcanics.[163] Some evidence of geothermal activity has been found elsewhere on Oʻahu.[164]
List of vents
Name | Age in years before present | Photo | Traits of the vent; most vents include a cone and lava flows[165] | Location | Coordinates per Ozawa, Tagami and Garcia 2005[166] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ʻAinoni | 440,000 ± 30,000[167] | This vent lies 2 miles (3.2 km) southwest of Olomana Peak[168] | 21°21′14″N 157°45′40″W / 21.35389°N 157.76111°W | ||
ʻĀkulikuli | 290,000 ± 70,000[167] | 21°21′03″N 157°55′00″W / 21.35083°N 157.91667°W | |||
Āliamanu Crater | 250,000 ± 40,000[169] | Maar[69] | This vent is located between Pearl Harbor and Honolulu,[168] directly northwest from Salt Lake Crater[68] | 21°21′43″N 157°54′32″W / 21.36194°N 157.90889°W | |
Black Point | 400,000–330,000,[170] older age estimates are 290,000 and 410,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] as well as 300,000 and 480,000[122] Apparently two eruptions occurred here[172] | Cone[69] and lava flow just south of Diamond Head.[173] | Southeast of Diamond Head[168] | 21°15′34.5″N 157°47′47″W / 21.259583°N 157.79639°W | |
Castle | 410,000 ± 50,000,[167] older age estimates are > 800,000 years old[55] or 850,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | Lava flow at the foot of the Nuanuʻu cliffs.[55] | 4.8 kilometres (3 mi) east of Kailua[168] |
21°24′00″N 157°46′09″W / 21.40000°N 157.76917°W | |
Diamond Head | 520,000–350,000[174] or 360,000 ± 70,000[119] | Southeast of Honolulu[168] | 21°15′50″N 157°48′32″W / 21.2638033°N 157.8089652°WGoogle Maps for Diamond Head State Monument | ||
Haʻikū | 800,000 ± 80,000[167] | The Haʻikū volcanics are found on the crest of the Koʻolau Range. lava flow is found at Heʻeia Stream at 15 metres (50 ft) elevation.[63] |
At the head of the valley of the same name[168] | 21°25′51″N 157°48′27″W / 21.43083°N 157.80750°W | |
Hanauma Bay | 70,000 ± 30,000,[169] ot 68,000 ± 5,000 if identical with "Toilet Bowl"[79] | Tuff cone[69] | East of Honolulu[172] close to Koko Head peninsula[128] | 21°16′24″N 157°41′34″W / 21.27333°N 157.69278°W | |
Kaʻau | 580,000 ± 120,000,[169] older age estimate is 650,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | At the head of the Pālolo valley[168] | 21°19′40″N 157°46′39″W / 21.32778°N 157.77750°W | ||
Kahauloa | 70,000 ± 30,000[44] | Tuff cone[69] | East of Honolulu[172] just southwest from Koko Head.[176] | 21°16′47″N 157°42′15″W / 21.2797414°N 157.7041887°WFrom Google Maps | |
Kaimukī | 380,000 ± 110,000,[167] older age estimate is 280,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | Lava cone[177] or lava dome[81] | In Kaimukī, Honolulu[168] on the northern flank of Diamond Head[81] | 21°17′08″N 157°48′32″W / 21.28556°N 157.80889°W | |
Kalama | 71,000 ± 6,000,[79] older age estimates are 34,000,[122] 30,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] and another is 80,000 ± 50,000[44] | Lava flow with a cinder cone;[177] with a volume of 0.11 cubic kilometres (0.026 cu mi) the Kalama lava flow is the largest of the Honolulu Volcanics.[31] | Northeast of Koko Head[172] | 21°17′37″N 157°40′01″W / 21.29361°N 157.66694°W | |
Kalihi | 460,000 ± 70,000,[167] older age estimates are 460,000–580,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | Kalihi volcanics on the crest of the Koʻolau Range,[178] which consist of cinder cones and lava flows.[179] A Kalihi lava flow is found in Honolulu at 12 metres (40 ft).[63] | At the head of the valley of the same name[168] | 21°20′33″N 157°52′39″W / 21.34250°N 157.87750°W | |
Kamanaiki | 590,000 ± 20,000[167] | Lava flows[177] | In the Kamanaiki valley[168] | 21°21′36″N 157°50′26″W / 21.36000°N 157.84056°W | |
Kāneʻohe | 500,000 ± 90,000,[167] older age estimate is 700,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | 2 miles (3.2 km) south of the place of the same name[168] | 21°23′51″N 157°47′46″W / 21.39750°N 157.79611°W | ||
Kāohikaipu | 63,000 ± 14,000[79] | Cone[69] that forms an island[180] | Northeast of Makapuʻu Point,[172] the easternmost tip of Oʻahu[181] | 21°19′13″N 157°39′23″W / 21.320340069547882°N 157.6563609211429°WTaken from Google Maps | |
Kaupō | 68,500 ± 5,000,[79] older age estimates are 320,000 and 30,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] as well as 32,000[122] | Spatter cone and lava flow[177] | 21°18′56″N 157°39′52″W / 21.31556°N 157.66444°W | ||
Koko Crater | 100,000 ± 30,000,[169] older age estimate is 40,000 by potassium-argon dating for the Koko Crater Group[171] | Tuff cone[69][44] | East of Honolulu[172] | 21°16′45″N 157°41′18″W / 21.27917°N 157.68833°W | |
Luakaha | 470,000 ± 30,000,[167] older age estimates are 360,000 and 420,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | Together with Makuku forms the Nuanuʻu group[182] | At the head of the Nuanuʻu valley[168] | 21°19′30″N 157°51′34″W / 21.32500°N 157.85944°W | |
Makalapa | 470,000 ± 60,000[167] | Maar[69] or crater just east from Pearl Harbor, which drops off steeply from about 30 metres (100 ft) to the shore.[136] | Northwest from Honolulu[168] and directly east from Pearl Harbor[68] (at grounds of United States Pacific Fleet headquarters[183][184]: 21 ) | 21°21′50″N 157°55′54″W / 21.36389°N 157.93167°W | |
Makawao | Olomana Peak lies 2 miles (3.2 km) northeast[168] | ||||
Makuku | 400,000 ± 30,000[167] | Together with Luakaha forms the Nuanuʻu group[182] | At the head of the Nuanuʻu valley[168] | 21°20′32″N 157°50′55″W / 21.34222°N 157.84861°W | |
Mānana | Tuff cone,[69] also known as Rabbit Island,[36] in Waimānalo Bay.[39] | Northwest of Makapuʻu Point,[172] the easternmost tip of Oʻahu.[181] It appears to be formed by two cones, with one crater still preserved.[185] | 21°19′44″N 157°39′25″W / 21.328873289004072°N 157.6570605741068°WTaken from Google Maps | ||
Mānoa | 200,000–70,000[169] | 21°18′37″N 157°48′56″W / 21.31028°N 157.81556°W | |||
Maunawili | 790,000–780,000[167] | Cinder cone and lava flow[177] | South of Olomana Peak[168] | 21°21′14″N 157°45′40″W / 21.35389°N 157.76111°W | |
Mauʻumae | 480,000 ± 40,000,[167] older age estimate is 430,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | In Kaimukī, Honolulu[168] | 21°17′20″N 157°48′05″W / 21.28889°N 157.80139°W | ||
Mōʻiliʻili | 90,000 ± 90,000[169] and more recently 76,000; an older estimate is 67,000[122] | 21°17′54.5″N 157°49′07″W / 21.298472°N 157.81861°W | |||
Mōkōlea | 580,000 ± 90,000[169] | Also known as Mokapu South[182] or Mokulea[186] | In Kailua Bay[168] | 21°26′04″N 157°43′22″W / 21.43444°N 157.72278°W | |
Moku Manu | 700,000 ± 80,000[167] | An island.[187] | North of Mokapu Point[168] | 21°28′22″N 157°43′28″W / 21.47278°N 157.72444°W | |
Pali | 640,000–600,000[167] | At the Pali road[168] close to the crest of the Koʻolau Range[188] | 21°22′27″N 157°47′29″W / 21.37417°N 157.79139°W | ||
Pali Kilo[78] | 400,000 ± 40,000[167] | On Mokapu peninsula[168] | 21°27′35″N 157°46′16″W / 21.45972°N 157.77111°W | ||
Punchbowl Crater | 430,000–390,000,[167] older age estimates are 300,000 and 530,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | At the centre of Honolulu[168] | 21°18′57.5″N 157°51′05″W / 21.315972°N 157.85139°W | ||
Puʻu Hawaiʻiloa[78] | 450,000–420,000[167] | Located on Mokapu peninsula, it is a symmetric cinder cone with associated lava flows.[189] | On Mokapu peninsula[168] | 21°27′28″N 157°45′42″W / 21.45778°N 157.76167°W | |
Puʻu Kakea / Round Top / Sugar Loaf | 76,000 ± 1,000 by argon-argon dating,[190] another estimate for the group is 70,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | Tuff Cone,[69] cinder cone with ash and lava.[177] The vents that generated the flow are also known as Round Top and Puʻu Kakea[146] | On the divide between Pauoa and Mānoa valleys[172] | 21°18′55″N 157°48′59″W / 21.315362108192296°N 157.8163454550223°WTaken from Google Maps | |
Pyramid Rock | 680,000 ± 100,000,[167] older age estimate is 710,000 by potassium-argon dating[171] | Located on Mokapu Peninsula,[63] close to Puʻu Hawaiʻiloa.[189] | On Mokapu peninsula[168] | 21°27′56″N 157°46′00″W / 21.46556°N 157.76667°W | |
Rocky Hill | 60,000–40,000[169] or 60,000 ± 70,000[44] | Located close to Punahou School,[191] the vent consists of one main cinder cone and subsidiary vents and lava flows.[192] | At Punahou Street[168] | 21°18′20″N 157°49′17″W / 21.30556°N 157.82139°W | |
Salt Lake | 430,000[122] | Tuff Cone[177] | Northwest from Honolulu[168] | 21°21′34″N 157°54′48″W / 21.35957814997149°N 157.91320580927862°WTaken from Google Maps | |
Tantalus | 110,000–80,000[169] | Tuff Cone[69] | On the divide between Pauoa and Mānoa valleys[172] | 21°20′21.5″N 157°48′50″W / 21.339306°N 157.81389°W | |
Training School | 580,000 ± 100,000[169] | Lava flow accompanied by a mudflow[177] | North of Olomana Peak[168] | 21°23′29″N 157°44′57″W / 21.39139°N 157.74917°W | |
Ulupaʻu Head | 600,000–400,000[193] | Ulupaʻu cone is located on Mokapu peninsula,[189] and forms its tip[194] and its highest point.[195] | The tip of Mokapu peninsula[168] | 21°27′16″N 157°43′41″W / 21.454556728663615°N 157.72796037142552°WTaken from Google Maps |
Notes
- ^ The flexural arch is a structure formed when the crust under Hawaiʻi Island sags and bends under the weight of the growing volcanoes.[26]
- ^ Sometimes described as "Kalihi component"[99] which is found in all Koʻolau volcanic rocks[100]
- ^ Either ancient one or 100 million years old as is the lithosphere beneath Hawaii[102]
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