Hookah
A hookah (
The major
The hookah or waterpipe was invented by Abul-Fath Gilani, a Persian physician of
Despite tobacco and drug use being considered a taboo when the hookah was first conceived, its use became increasingly popular among nobility and subsequently widely accepted.[21] Burned tobacco is increasingly being replaced by vaporizing flavored tobacco. Still the original hookah is often used in rural South Asia, which continues to use tumbak (a pure and coarse form of unflavored tobacco leaves) and smoked by burning it directly with charcoal.[22] While this method delivers a much higher content of tobacco and nicotine, it also incurs more adverse health effects compared to vaporizing hookahs.[citation needed]
The word hookah is a derivative of "huqqa", a Hindustani word,[2][23][24] of Arabic origin (derived from حُقَّة ḥuqqa, "casket, bottle, water pipe").[25] Outside its native region, hookah smoking has gained popularity throughout the world,[16] especially among younger people.[26]
Names and etymology
In the Indian subcontinent, the
- The most highly-dressed and splendid hookah was prepared for me. I tried it, but did not like it. As after several trials I still found it disagreeable, I with much gravity requested to know whether it was indispensably necessary that I should become a smoker, which was answered with equal gravity, "Undoubtedly it is, for you might as well be out of the world as out of the fashion. Here everybody uses a hookah, and it is impossible to get on without ...[I] have frequently heard men declare they would much rather be deprived of their dinner than their hookah."[29]
Arabic أرجيلة ('arjīlah)
In Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria, na[r]gile (на[р]гиле) or na[r]gila (на[р]гила) is used to refer to the pipe,[33] while šiša (шиша) refers to شیشه (šiše) meaning glass bottle in Persian. The pipes there often have one or two mouth pieces. The flavored tobacco, created by marinating cuts of tobacco in a multitude of flavored molasses, is placed above the water and covered by pierced foil with hot coals placed on top, and the smoke is drawn through cold water to cool and filter it. In Albania, the hookah is called "lula" or "lulava". In Romania, it is called narghilea.
"Narguile"[34] is the common word in Spain used to refer to the pipe, although "cachimba"[35] is also used, along with "shisha" by Moroccan immigrants in Spain. The word "narguilé" is used in Portuguese. "Narguilé" is also used in French, along with "chicha".
Arabic شيشة (šīšah), through Ottoman Turkish word شیشه (şîşe), itself a direct loanword from Persian شیشه (šīše) meaning "glass container", is the common term for the hookah in
In
In
In Kashmiri, hookah is called "Jajeer".[40]
In Maldives, hookah is called "Guduguda".[41]
In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, hookah is called "Shisha".
In the
In Sindhi, another language of South Asia, it is called huqqo (حُقو / हुक़्क़ो).[44]
In Vietnam, hookah is called hookah shisha (bình shisha) and shisha is called "shisha tobacco" (thuốc shisha).[45]
History
In the
Following the European introduction of
Modern development
Instead of
Culture
South Asia
India
The concept of hookah is thought to have originated in medieval India.[48][15] Once the province of the wealthy, it was tremendously popular especially during Mughal rule. The hookah has since become less popular; however, it is once again garnering the attention of the masses, and cafés and restaurants that offer it as a consumable are popular. The use of hookahs from ancient times in India was not only a custom, but a matter of prestige. Rich and landed classes would smoke hookahs.
Tobacco is smoked in hookahs in many villages as per traditional customs. Smoking tobacco-molasses is now becoming popular among the youth in India. There are several chain clubs, bars and coffee shops in India offering a wider variety of
Koyilandy, a small fishing town on the west coast of India, once made and exported hookahs extensively. These are known as Malabar Hookhas or Koyilandy Hookahs. Today these intricate hookahs are difficult to find outside Koyilandy and are becoming difficult even to find in Koyilandy itself.
As hookah resurges in India, there have been numerous raids and bans recently on hookah smoking, especially in Gujarat.[53]
Pakistan
Although it has been traditionally prevalent in rural areas for generations,[54] smoking hookahs has become very popular in the cosmopolitan cities of Pakistan. One can see many cafés in Pakistan offering hookah smoking to its guests. Many households even have hookahs for smoking or decoration purposes.
In Punjab, Pakhtunkhwa, and in northern Balochistan, the topmost part on which coals are placed is called chillum.
In big cities like Karachi and Lahore, cafes and restaurants offered Hookah and charged per hour. In 2013, it was banned by the Pakistan Supreme court. The cafe owners started offering shisha to minors, which was the major reason for the ban.[55]
Bangladesh
The hookah (
Nepal
Hookahs (हुक़्क़ा), especially wooden ones, are popular in Nepal. Use of hookahs has been usually considered to symbolize an elite family status in Nepali history.[60]
Nowadays, the cities of Kathmandu, Pokhara and Dharan have special hookah bars. Although hookahs have started becoming popular among younger people and tourists, the overall number of 'hookah-smokers' is likely dwindling owing to the widespread availability of cheaper cigarettes.[61]
Middle East
In the Arab world and the Middle East, people smoke waterpipes as part of their culture and traditions. Local names of waterpipe in the Middle East are, argila, čelam/čelīm, ḡalyān or ghalyan, ḥoqqa, nafas, nargile, and shisha.[49]
Social smoking is done with a single or double
Most
Gaza
In 2010 the
Iran
The exact date of the first use of ḡalyān in Iran is not known. However, the earliest known literary evidence of the hookah, anywhere, comes in a quatrain by Ahlī Shirazi (d. 1535), a Persian poet, referring to the use of the ḡalyān,[66] thus dating its use at least as early as the time of the Shah Ṭahmāsp I. This suggests, the hookah was already in use in ancient Persia, and it made its way into India soon afterward.[citation needed]
Although the
An emissary of
Saudi Arabia
In 2014, Saudi Arabia was in the process of implementing general smoking bans in public places. This included shishas.[74][75] Currently, hookah remains legal in the country, with some restaurants charging customers extra fees.[76]
Syria
Although perceived to be an important cultural feature of Syria (see Smoking in Syria), narghile had declined in popularity during most of the twentieth century and was used mostly by older men. Similar to other Middle Eastern countries, its use increased dramatically during the 1990s, particularly among youth and young adults.[77][78] As of 2004, prior to the Syrian civil war, 17% of 18- to 29-year-olds, 10% of 30- to 45-year-olds, and 6% of 46- to 65-year-olds reported using narghile, and use was higher in men than women.[78] More recent data is not available.
Turkey and the Balkans
Nargile became part of Turkish and Balkan culture from the 17th century. Back then, it became prominent in society and was used as a status symbol. Nargile was such an important Turkish custom that it even sparked a diplomatic crisis between France and the Ottoman Empire.[79] Western Turkey is noted for its traditional pottery production where potters make earthenware objects, including nargile bowls.[80]
Southeast Asia
In
Hookah was virtually unknown in Southeast Asia before the latter 20th century, yet the popularity among contemporary younger people is now vastly growing.[82] Southeast Asia's most cosmopolitan cities, Makati, Bangkok, Singapore (now banned),[83] Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, now have various bars and clubs that offer hookahs to patrons.[citation needed]
Although hookah use has been common for hundreds of years and enjoyed by people of all ages, it has recently started to become a youth peoples' pastime in Asia.[84] Hookahs are most popular with college students, and young adults, who may be underage and thus unable to purchase cigarettes.[85]
Kenya
The hookah is called shisha in Kenya. They are officially banned in the country. Despite this, many clubs still continue to defy the law and hookah smoking goes on in urban areas.[86][87]
South Africa
In South Africa, hookah, colloquially known as a hubbly bubbly or an okka pipe, is popular among the
In South Africa, the terminology of the various hookah components also differ from other countries. The clay "head/bowl" is known as a "clay pot". The hoses are called "pipes" and the air release valve is known as a "clutch".[citation needed]
The windcover (which is considered optional for outside use[citation needed]) is known as an "As-jas", which directly translates from Afrikaans to English as an "ash-jacket". Also, making/preparing the "clay pot" is commonly referred to as "racking the hubbly".[citation needed]
Some scientists point to the
United States and Canada
During the 1960s and 1970s, hookahs were a popular tool for the consumption of various derivations of tobacco, among other things.[91] At parties or small gatherings the hookah hose was passed around with users partaking as they saw fit. Typically, though, open flames were used instead of burning coals.
Today, hookahs are readily available for sale at smoke shops and some gas stations across the United States, along with a variety of tobacco brands and accessories. In addition to private hookah smoking, hookah lounges or bars have opened in cities across the country.
Recently, certain cities, counties, and states have implemented indoor smoking bans. In some jurisdictions, hookah businesses can be exempted from the policies through special permits. Some permits, however, have requirements such as the business earning a certain minimum percentage of their revenue from alcohol or tobacco.
In cities with indoor smoking bans, hookah bars have been forced to close or switch to tobacco-free mixtures. In many cities, though, hookah lounges have been growing in popularity.
In the United States, the prevalence of hookah use has been noted in a 2019 article to be increasing, particularly among certain states with larger populations of Arab Americans. The use of hookah is more common in urban areas compared to rural areas, and this trend is influenced by factors like availability in public spaces such as cafés and restaurants, as well as cultural and social influences.[100]
Operation
The jar at the bottom of the hookah is filled with water sufficient to submerge a few centimeters (an inch or two) of the body tube, which is sealed tightly to it. Deeper water will only increase the inhalation force needed to use it. Tobacco or tobacco-free molasses are placed inside the bowl at the top of the hookah. Often the bowl is covered with perforated tin foil or a metal screen and coal placed on top. The foil or screen separates the coal and the tobacco, with the foil and the tobacco reaching maximum temperatures of 450 and 130 degrees Celsius (850 °F and 270 °F) respectively.[101] These temperatures are too low to sustain combustion and considerably lower than the 900 degrees Celsius (1700 °F) found in cigarettes.[102] A larger fraction of the smoke condensates of the hookah are produced by simple distillation rather than by pyrolysis and combustion, and as a result, would tend to carry considerably less of the pyrosynthesized compounds found in cigarette smoke.[101]
As a result of suction through the hose, a vacuum is created in the headspace of the water bowl sufficient to overcome the small static head of the water above the inlet pipe, causing the smoke to bubble into the bowl. At the same time, air is drawn over and heated by the coals. It then passes through the tobacco mixture where due to hot air convection and thermal conduction from the coal, the mainstream aerosol is produced.[103] The vapor is passed down through the body tube that extends into the water in the jar. It bubbles up through the water, losing heat, and fills the top part of the jar, to which the hose is attached. When a user inhales from the hose, smoke passes into the lungs, and the change in pressure in the jar pulls more air through the charcoal, continuing the process. Vapour that has collected in the bowl above the waterline may be exhausted through a purge valve, if present. This one-way valve is opened by the positive pressure created from gently blowing into the hose.
Health effects
Exposure to toxic chemicals
Tobacco smoke contains toxic chemicals, including carcinogens (chemicals that cause cancer).[104] Water does not filter out many of these chemicals.[104] The toxic chemicals come from the burning of the charcoal, tobacco, and flavorings. These chemicals can lead to cancer, heart disease, lung disease, and other health problems.[105][106] The toxic chemicals include tobacco-specific nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo[a]pyrene and anthracene), volatile aldehydes (e.g. formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein), benzene, nitric oxide, heavy metals (arsenic, chromium, lead), and carbon monoxide (CO).[105] Hookah smoking also increases the amount of carbon monoxide (CO) in a person's body to eight times their normal level.[107] Compared to smoking one cigarette, a single hookah session exposes users to more carbon monoxide and PAHs, similar levels of nicotine, and lower levels of tobacco-specific nitrosamines.[11][105] By inhaling these chemicals, hookah smokers are at increased risk of many of the same health problems as cigarette smokers.[13][104] An average hookah smoking session smokers inhale 100–200 times more smoke inhaled smoking a single cigarette.[108]
Exposure to pathogens that cause infectious diseases
When people share a hookah, there is a risk of spreading infectious diseases such as
Addiction to and dependence on hookah
Hookah smokers inhale nicotine, which is an addictive chemical. A typical hookah smoking session delivers 1.7 times the nicotine dose of one cigarette[111] and the nicotine absorption rate in daily waterpipe users is equivalent to smoking 10 cigarettes per day.[112] Many hookah smokers, especially frequent users, have urges to smoke and show other withdrawal symptoms after not smoking for some time, and it can be difficult to quit.[113][114][115][116] People who become addicted to hookah may be more likely to smoke alone.[117] Hookah smokers who are addicted may find it easier to quit if they have help from a quit-smoking counseling program.[114][118][119]
Short-term health effects
Carbon monoxide (CO) in hookah smoke binds to hemoglobin in the blood to form
Long-term health effects
Current evidence indicates hookah causes numerous health problems.[11][13][104][131] Hookah smoking is associated with increased risk of several cancers (lung, esophageal, and gastric), pulmonary diseases (impaired pulmonary function, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema), coronary artery disease, periodontal disease, obstetrical and perinatal problems (low birth weight and pulmonary problems at birth), larynx and voice changes, and osteoporosis. Many of the studies to date have methodological limitations, such as not measuring hookah use in a standardized way.[13] Larger, longitudinal studies are needed to learn more about the long-term health effects of hookah use and of exposure to hookah smoke.[13] Oral health is also affected, notably dental and periodontal status [132]
Effects of secondhand exposure to hookah smoke
See also
- Bong
- Electronic hookah
- Health effects of tobacco
- Incense
- One-hitter (smoking)
- Thuoc lao
- Chillum (pipe)
- Pipe smoking
References
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It has even drawn largely on English, and such words as daktar and platfarm, isteshan and tikat, trem-ghari and rel-ghari, registran karna and apil karna are as common as similar words are in Ceylon. To make up for it Hindustani has not only enriched the vocabulary of Anglo-Indian English with such words as topi and pugre, oheerot and hookah, dhoby and sepoy, ghary and tamasha, durbar and bukshish, Kachcheri and Punkah, but has contributed to it words like jungle, bazar, [and] loot.
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Bhabani Bhattacharya, who uses Hindi words like taveez, laddoo, hookah, vaid and halwai, also makes deft employment of reverential term Bai for the heroine besides using exclamatory terms as Ho, Han (yes) and Ram-Ram.
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The hookah is of historical interest. Portuguese merchants introduced tobacco leaves and European style pipes into Bijapur, the glittering capital of the Adil Shahi kingdom. From here, Asad Beg, the Moghul ambassador in Bijapur, took a large quantity of tobacco leaves and pipes to the Mughal court. He presented Emperor Akbar with some tobacco leaves and a jewel-encrusted European style pope. Out of courtesy and curiosity, Akbar took a few puffs, but his personal physician was worried that tobacco smoke, a hitherto totally unknown substance, might be dangerous. So, he suggested that the smoke be purified by passing it through water, before being inhaled. Thus, the hookah, or water pipe, came into being.
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In the domain of philosophy, religion and fine arts, particularly music, the words come entirely from Hindi-Sanskrit. The commonest ones are puja, bhajan, shastra, purana, karma, vina, raga, etc. Finally, common festivals and socio-cultural institutions throughout the country provide such terms as Holi, Dee(pa)wali, brahmin, sudra, hookah, bidi, budmash, shikari and so on.
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External links
- Media related to Hookahs at Wikimedia Commons
- WHO Report on water pipe (hookah), by WHO Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation.
- Chaouachi, Kamal (2006). "A critique of the WHO Tob Reg's "Advisory Note" report entitled: "Waterpipe tobacco smoking: Health effects, research needs and recommended actions by regulators"". Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine. 5: 17. PMID 17112380.
- Scientific Evidence of the Health Risks of Hookah Smoking Archived 10 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine (University of Maryland, College Park: 9 June 2008, vol 17, issue 23)