Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
Hereditary peerage | |
---|---|
Preceded by | Peerage created |
Succeeded by | Henry Kitchener, 2nd Earl Kitchener |
Personal details | |
Born | First World War | 24 June 1850
Awards | Complete list |
Kitchener was credited in 1898 for having won the
In 1914, at the start of the
On 5 June 1916, Kitchener was making his way to Russia on
Early life
Kitchener was born in Ballylongford near Listowel, County Kerry, in Ireland, son of army officer Henry Horatio Kitchener (1805–1894) and Frances Anne Chevallier (1826–1864); daughter of John Chevallier, a clergyman, of Aspall Hall, and his third wife, Elizabeth, née Cole).[3][4]
Both sides of Kitchener's family were from
In 1864 the family moved to
Commissioned into the
Survey of western Palestine
In 1874, aged 24, Kitchener was assigned by the
Conder and Kitchener's expedition became known as the
The results of the survey were published in an eight-volume series, with Kitchener's contribution in the first three tomes (Conder and Kitchener 1881–1885). This survey has had a lasting effect on the Middle East for several reasons:
- It serves as the basis for the grid system used in the modern maps of Israel and Palestine;
- The data compiled by Conder and Kitchener are still consulted by archaeologists and geographers working in the southern Levant;
- The survey itself effectively delineated and defined the political borders of the southern Levant. For example, the modern border between Israel and Lebanon is established at the point in upper Galilee where Conder and Kitchener's survey stopped.[10]
In 1878, having completed the survey of western Palestine, Kitchener was sent to Cyprus to undertake a survey of that newly acquired British protectorate.[6] He became vice-consul in Anatolia in 1879.[3][12]
Egypt
On 4 January 1883 Kitchener was promoted to captain,[3][13] given the Turkish rank binbasi (major), and dispatched to Egypt, where he took part in the reconstruction of the Egyptian Army.[6]
Egypt had recently become a British puppet state, its army led by British officers, although still nominally under the sovereignty of the Khedive (Egyptian viceroy) and his nominal overlord the Ottoman sultan. Kitchener became second-in-command of an Egyptian cavalry regiment in February 1883, and then took part in the failed Nile Expedition to relieve Charles George Gordon in the Sudan in late 1884.[6][14]
Fluent in Arabic, Kitchener preferred the company of the Egyptians over the British, and the company of no-one over the Egyptians, writing in 1884 that: "I have become such a solitary bird that I often think I were happier alone".[15] Kitchener spoke Arabic so well that he was able to effortlessly adopt the dialects of the different Bedouin tribes of Egypt and the Sudan.[16]
Promoted to
Kitchener was promoted to brevet colonel on 11 April 1888[3][21] and to the substantive rank of major on 20 July 1889[22] and led the Egyptian cavalry at the Battle of Toski in August 1889.[3] At the beginning of 1890 he was appointed Inspector General of the [Egyptian National Police|Egyptian police]] 1888–92[3][23] before moving to the position of Adjutant-General of the Egyptian Army in December of the same year and Sirdar (Commander-in-Chief) of the Egyptian Army with the local rank of brigadier in April 1892.[3][20]
Kitchener was worried that, although his moustache was bleached white by the sun, his blond hair refused to turn grey, making it harder for Egyptians to take him seriously. His appearance added to his mystique: his long legs made him appear taller, whilst a cast in his eye made people feel he was looking right through them.[24] Kitchener, at 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m), towered over most of his contemporaries.[25]
Sir Evelyn Baring, the de facto British ruler of Egypt, thought Kitchener "the most able (soldier) I have come across in my time".[26] In 1890, a War Office evaluation of Kitchener concluded: "A good brigadier, very ambitious, not popular, but has of late greatly improved in tact and manner ... a fine gallant soldier and good linguist and very successful in dealing with Orientals" [in the 19th century, Europeans called the Middle East the Orient].[27]
While in Egypt, Kitchener was initiated into Freemasonry in 1883 in the Italian-speaking La Concordia Lodge No. 1226, which met in Cairo.[28] In November 1899 he was appointed the first District Grand Master of the District Grand Lodge of Egypt and the Sudan, under the United Grand Lodge of England.[29][30]
Sudan and Khartoum
Kitchener won victories at the
Kitchener achieved further successes at the Battle of Atbara in April 1898, and then the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898.[3][20] After marching to the walls of Khartoum, he placed his army into a crescent shape with the Nile to the rear, together with the gunboats in support. This enabled him to bring overwhelming firepower against any attack of the Ansar from any direction, though with the disadvantage of having his men spread out thinly, with hardly any forces in reserve. Such an arrangement could have proven disastrous if the Ansar had broken through the thin khaki line.[36] At about 5 a.m. on 2 September 1898, a huge force of Ansar, under the command of the Khalifa himself, came out of the fort at Omdurman, marching under their black banners inscribed with Koranic quotations in Arabic; this led Bennet Burleigh, the Sudan correspondent of The Daily Telegraph, to write: "It was not alone the reverberation of the tread of horses and men's feet I heard and seemed to feel as well as hear, but a voiced continuous shouting and chanting-the Dervish invocation and battle challenge "Allah e Allah Rasool Allah el Mahdi!" they reiterated in vociferous rising measure, as they swept over the intervening ground".[37] Kitchener had the ground carefully studied so that his officers would know the best angle of fire, and had his army open fire on the Ansar first with artillery, then machine guns and finally rifles as the enemy advanced.[38] A young Winston Churchill, serving as an army officer, wrote of what he saw: "A ragged line of men were coming on desperately, struggling forward in the face of the pitiless fire – black banners tossing and collapsing; white figures subsiding in dozens to the ground ... valiant men were struggling on through a hell of whistling metal, exploding shells, and spurting dust – suffering, despairing, dying". By about 8:30 am, much of the Dervish army was dead; Kitchener ordered his men to advance, fearing that the Khalifa might escape with what was left of his army to the fort of Omdurman, forcing Kitchener to lay siege to it.[39]
Viewing the battlefield from horseback on the hill at Jebel Surgham, Kitchener commented: "Well, we have given them a damn good dusting".[39] As the British and Egyptians advanced in columns, the Khalifa attempted to outflank and encircle the columns; this led to desperate hand-to-hand fighting. Churchill wrote of his own experience as the 21st Lancers cut their way through the Ansar: "The collision was prodigious and for perhaps ten wonderful seconds, no man heeded his enemy. Terrified horses wedged in the crowd, bruised and shaken men, sprawling in heaps, struggle dazed and stupid, to their feet, panted and looked about them". The Lancers' onslaught carried them through the 12-men-deep Ansar line with the Lancers losing 71 dead and wounded while killing hundreds of the enemy. Following the annihilation of his army, the Khalifa ordered a retreat and early in the afternoon, Kitchener rode in triumph into Omdurman and immediately ordered that the thousands of Christians enslaved by the Ansar were now all free people. Kitchener lost fewer than 500 men while killing about 11,000 and wounding 17,000 of the Ansar. Burleigh summed the general mood of the British troops: "At Last! Gordon has been avenged and justified. The dervishes have been overwhelming routed, Mahdism has been "smashed", while the Khalifa's capital of Omdurman has been stripped of its barbaric halo of sanctity and invulnerability.[40] Kitchener promptly had the Mahdi's tomb blown up to prevent it from becoming a rallying point for his supporters, and had his bones scattered. Queen Victoria, who had wept when she heard of General Gordon's death, now wept for the man who had vanquished Gordon, asking whether it had been really necessary for Kitchener to desecrate the Mahdi's tomb.[41]The body of the Mahdi was disinterred and beheaded.[42] This symbolic decapitation echoed General Gordon's death at the hands of the Mahdist forces in 1885. The headless body of the Mahdi was thrown into the Nile.[43][44] Kitchener is sometimes claimed to have kept the Mahdī's skull and rumoured that he intended to use it as a drinking cup or ink well.[45] Other historians state that he had the head buried unmarked in a Muslim cemetery.[46][47] In a letter to his mother, Churchill wrote that the victory at Omdurman had been "disgraced by the inhuman slaughter of the wounded and ... Kitchener is responsible for this".[48] There is no evidence that Kitchener ordered his men to shoot the wounded Ansar on the field of Omdurman, but he did give before the battle what the British journalist Mark Urban called a "mixed message", saying that mercy should be given, while at the same time saying "Remember Gordon" and that the enemy were all "murderers" of Gordon.[31] The victory at Omdurman made Kitchener into a popular war hero, and gave him a reputation for efficiency and as a man who got things done. The journalist G. W. Steevens wrote in the Daily Mail that "He [Kitchener] is more like a machine than a man. You feel that he ought to be patented and shown with pride at the Paris International Exhibition. British Empire: Exhibit No. 1 hors concours, the Sudan Machine". The shooting of the wounded at Omdurman, along with the desecration of the Mahdi's tomb, gave Kitchener a reputation for brutality that was to dog him for the rest of his life, and posthumously.[41]
After Omdurman, Kitchener opened a special sealed letter from Salisbury that told him that Salisbury's real reason for ordering the conquest of the Sudan was to prevent France from moving into the Sudan, and that the talk of "avenging Gordon" had been just a pretext.
Kitchener became Governor-General of the Sudan in September 1898, and began a programme of restoring good governance. The programme had a strong foundation, based on education at Gordon Memorial College as its centrepiece – and not simply for the children of the local elites, for children from anywhere could apply to study. He ordered the mosques of Khartoum rebuilt, instituted reforms which recognised Friday – the Muslim holy day – as the official day of rest, and guaranteed freedom of religion to all citizens of the Sudan. He attempted to prevent evangelical Christian missionaries from trying to convert Muslims to Christianity.[52]
At this stage of his career Kitchener was keen to exploit the press, cultivating G. W. Steevens of the Daily Mail who wrote a book With Kitchener to Khartum. Later, as his legend had grown, he was able to be rude to the press, on one occasion in the Second Boer War bellowing: "Get out of my way, you drunken swabs".[24] He was created Baron Kitchener, of Khartoum and of Aspall in the County of Suffolk, on 31 October 1898.[53]
Anglo-Boer War
During the
Following the defeat of the conventional
Historian Caroline Elkins characterized Kitchener's conduct of the war as a "scorched earth policy", as his forces razed homesteads, poisoned wells and implemented concentration camps, as well as turned women and children into targets in the war.[60]
The
Kitchener, who had been promoted to the substantive rank of general on 1 June 1902,
Court-martial of Breaker Morant
In the Breaker Morant case, five Australian officers and one English officer of an irregular unit, the Bushveldt Carbineers, were court-martialed for summarily executing twelve Boer prisoners,[66] and also for the murder of a German missionary believed to be a Boer sympathiser, all allegedly under orders approved by Kitchener. The celebrated horseman and bush poet Lt. Harry "Breaker" Morant and Lt. Peter Handcock were found guilty, sentenced to death, and shot by firing squad at Pietersburg on 27 February 1902. Their death warrants were personally signed by Kitchener. He reprieved a third soldier, Lt. George Witton, who served 32 months before being released.[67]
India
In late 1902 Kitchener was appointed Commander-in-Chief, India,[68] and arrived there to take up the position in November, in time to be in charge during the January 1903 Delhi Durbar. He immediately began the task of reorganising the Indian Army. Kitchener's plan "The Reorganisation and Redistribution of the Army in India" recommended preparing the Indian Army for any potential war by reducing the size of fixed garrisons and reorganising it into two armies, to be commanded by Generals Sir Bindon Blood and George Luck.[69]
While many of the
Later events proved Curzon was right in opposing Kitchener's attempts to concentrate all military decision-making power in his own office. Although the offices of Commander-in-Chief and Military Member were now held by a single individual, senior officers could approach only the Commander-in-Chief directly. In order to deal with the Military Member, a request had to be made through the Army Secretary, who reported to the Indian Government and had right of access to the Viceroy. There were even instances when the two separate bureaucracies produced different answers to a problem, with the Commander-in-Chief disagreeing with himself as Military Member. This became known as "the canonisation of duality". Kitchener's successor, General Sir Garrett O'Moore Creagh, was nicknamed "no More K", and concentrated on establishing good relations with the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge.[73]
Kitchener presided over the Rawalpindi Parade in 1905 to honour the Prince and Princess of Wales's visit to India.[74] That same year Kitchener founded the Indian Staff College at Quetta (now the Pakistan Command and Staff College), where his portrait still hangs.[75] His term of office as Commander-in-Chief, India, was extended by two years in 1907.[71]
Kitchener was promoted to the highest Army rank,
From 22 to 24 June 1911, Kitchener took part in the coronation of King George V and Queen Mary. Kitchener assumed the role of Captain of the Escort, responsible for the personal protection of the royals during the coronation. In this capacity, Kitchener was also the Field Marshal, In Command of the Troops, and assumed command of the 55,000 British and imperial soldiers present in London. During the Coronation ceremony itself, Kitchener acted as Third Sword, one of the four swords tasked with guarding the monarch.[77] Later, in November 1911, Kitchener hosted the King and Queen in Port Said, Egypt while they were on their way to India for the Delhi Durbar to assume the titles of Emperor and Empress of India.[78]
Return to Egypt
In June 1911 Kitchener then returned to Egypt as British Agent and Consul-General in Egypt during the formal reign of
At the time of the Agadir Crisis (summer 1911), Kitchener told the Committee of Imperial Defence that he expected the Germans to walk through the French "like partridges" and he informed Lord Esher "that if they imagined that he was going to command the Army in France he would see them damned first".[79]
He was created Earl Kitchener, of Khartoum and of Broome in the County of Kent, on 29 June 1914.[76]
During this period he became a proponent of Scouting and coined the phrase "once a Scout, always a Scout".[80]
First World War
1914
Raising the New Armies
At the outset of the
Against
Cabinet Secretary Maurice Hankey wrote of Kitchener:
The great outstanding fact is that within eighteen months of the outbreak of the war, when he had found a people reliant on sea-power, and essentially non-military in their outlook, he had conceived and brought into being, completely equipped in every way, a national army capable of holding its own against the armies of the greatest military Power the world had ever seen.[84]
However,
Deploying the BEF
At the War Council (5 August) Kitchener and Lieutenant General Sir
Kitchener, believing Britain should husband her resources for a long war, decided at Cabinet (6 August) that the initial BEF would consist of only 4 infantry divisions (and 1 cavalry), not the 5 or 6 promised.
Kitchener's wish to concentrate further back at Amiens may also have been influenced by a largely accurate map of German dispositions which was published by Repington in The Times on the morning of 12 August.[83] Kitchener had a three-hour meeting (12 August) with Sir John French, Archibald Murray, Wilson and the French liaison officer Victor Huguet, before being overruled by the Prime Minister, who eventually agreed that the BEF should assemble at Maubeuge.[88]
Sir John French's orders from Kitchener were to cooperate with the French but not to take orders from them. Given that the tiny BEF (about 100,000 men, half of them serving regulars and half reservists) was Britain's only field army, Kitchener also instructed French to avoid undue losses and exposure to "forward movements where large numbers of French troops are not engaged" until Kitchener himself had had a chance to discuss the matter with the Cabinet.[89]
Meeting with Sir John French
The BEF commander in France, Sir John French, concerned at heavy British losses at the Battle of Le Cateau, was considering withdrawing his forces from the Allied line. By 31 August, French commander-in-chief Joseph Joffre, President Raymond Poincaré (relayed via Bertie, the British Ambassador) and Kitchener had sent him messages urging him not to do so. Kitchener, authorised by a midnight meeting of whichever Cabinet Ministers could be found, left for France for a meeting with Sir John on 1 September.[90]
They met, together with René Viviani (French Prime Minister) and Alexandre Millerand (now French War Minister). Huguet recorded that Kitchener was "calm, balanced, reflective" whilst Sir John was "sour, impetuous, with congested face, sullen and ill-tempered". On Francis Bertie's advice Kitchener dropped his intention of inspecting the BEF. French and Kitchener moved to a separate room, and no independent account of the meeting exists. After the meeting Kitchener telegraphed the Cabinet that the BEF would remain in the line, although taking care not to be outflanked, and told French to consider this "an instruction". French had a friendly exchange of letters with Joffre.[91]
French had been particularly angry that Kitchener had arrived wearing his field marshal's uniform. This was how Kitchener normally dressed at the time (
1915
Strategy
In January 1915, Field Marshal French, with the concurrence of other senior commanders (e.g. General Sir Douglas Haig), wanted the New Armies incorporated into existing divisions as battalions rather than sent out as entire divisions. French felt (wrongly) that the war would be over by the summer before the New Army divisions were deployed, as Germany had recently redeployed some divisions to the east and took the step of appealing to the Prime Minister, Asquith, over Kitchener's head, but Asquith refused to overrule Kitchener. This further damaged relations between French and Kitchener, who had travelled to France in September 1914 during the First Battle of the Marne to order French to resume his place in the Allied line.[93]
Kitchener warned French in January 1915 that the
With the Russians being pushed back from Poland, Kitchener thought the transfer of German troops west and a possible invasion of Britain increasingly likely and told the War Council (14 May) that he was not willing to send the New Armies overseas. He wired French (16 May 1915) that he would send no more reinforcements to France until he was clear the German line could be broken but sent two divisions at the end of May to please Joffre, not because he thought a breakthrough possible.[97] He had wanted to conserve his New Armies to strike a knockout blow in 1916–17, but by the summer of 1915 realised that high casualties and a major commitment to France were inescapable. "Unfortunately we have to make war as we must, and not as we should like" as he told the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August 1915.[98]
At an Anglo-French conference at Calais (6 July) Joffre and Kitchener, who was opposed to "too vigorous" offensives, reached a compromise on "local offensives on a vigorous scale", and Kitchener agreed to deploy New Army divisions to France. An inter-Allied
Reduction in powers
Kitchener continued to lose favour with politicians and professional soldiers. He found it "repugnant and unnatural to have to discuss military secrets with a large number of gentlemen with whom he was but barely acquainted".
Kitchener advised the Dardanelles Committee (21 October) that Baghdad be seized for the sake of prestige then abandoned as logistically untenable. His advice was no longer accepted without question, but the British forces fell short of their objective and were eventually besieged and captured at Kut.[106]
Archibald Murray (Chief of the Imperial General Staff) later recorded that Kitchener was "quite unfit for the position of secretary of state" and "impossible", claiming that he never assembled the Army Council as a body, but instead gave them orders separately, and was usually exhausted by Friday. Kitchener was also keen to break up Territorial units whenever possible whilst ensuring that "No 'K' Division left the country incomplete". Murray wrote that "He seldom told the absolute truth and the whole truth" and claimed that it was not until he left on a tour of inspection of Gallipoli and the Near East that Murray was able to inform the Cabinet that volunteering had fallen far below the level needed to maintain a BEF of 70 divisions, requiring the introduction of conscription. The Cabinet insisted on proper General Staff papers being presented in Kitchener's absence.[107]
Asquith, who told Robertson that Kitchener was "an impossible colleague" and "his veracity left much to be desired", hoped that he could be persuaded to remain in the region as Commander-in-Chief and acted in charge of the
Kitchener and Asquith were agreed that Robertson should become CIGS, but Robertson refused to do this if Kitchener "continued to be his own CIGS", although given Kitchener's great prestige he did not want him to resign; he wanted the Secretary of State to be sidelined to an advisory role like the
1916
Early in 1916 Kitchener visited Douglas Haig, newly appointed Commander-in-Chief of the BEF in France. Kitchener had been a key figure in the removal of Haig's predecessor Sir John French, with whom he had a poor relationship. Haig differed with Kitchener over the importance of Mediterranean efforts and wanted to see a strong General Staff in London, but nonetheless valued Kitchener as a military voice against the "folly" of civilians such as Churchill. However, he thought Kitchener "pinched, tired, and much aged", and thought it sad that his mind was "losing its comprehension" as the time for decisive victory on the Western Front (as Haig and Robertson saw it) approached.[111] Kitchener was somewhat doubtful of Haig's plan to win decisive victory in 1916, and would have preferred smaller and purely attritional attacks, but sided with Robertson in telling the Cabinet that the planned Anglo-French offensive on the Somme should go ahead.[112]
Kitchener was under pressure from French Prime Minister Aristide Briand (29 March 1916) for the British to attack on the Western Front to help relieve the pressure of the German attack at Verdun. The French refused to bring troops home from Salonika, which Kitchener thought a play for the increase of French power in the Mediterranean.[113]
On 2 June 1916, Kitchener personally answered questions asked by politicians about his running of the war effort; at the start of hostilities Kitchener had ordered two million rifles from various US arms manufacturers. Only 480 of these rifles had arrived in the UK by 4 June 1916. The number of shells supplied was no less paltry. Kitchener explained the efforts he had made to secure alternative supplies. He received a resounding vote of thanks from the 200
Death
Russian mission
In the midst of his other political and military concerns, Kitchener had devoted personal attention to the deteriorating situation on the
Lost at sea
Kitchener sailed from
The news of Kitchener's death was received with shock all over the British Empire.[122] A man in Yorkshire committed suicide at the news; a sergeant on the Western Front was heard to exclaim "Now we've lost the war. Now we've lost the war"; and a nurse wrote home to her family that she knew Britain would win as long as Kitchener lived, and now that he was gone: "How awful it is – a far worse blow than many German victories. So long as he was with us we knew even if things were gloomy that his guiding hand was at the helm."[122]
General
Conspiracy theories
Kitchener's great fame, the suddenness of his death, and its apparently convenient timing for a number of parties gave almost immediate rise to a number of
General
Duquesne's unverified story was that he returned to Europe, posed as the Russian Duke Boris Zakrevsky in 1916, and joined Kitchener in Scotland.[133] While on board HMS Hampshire with Kitchener, Duquesne claimed to have signalled a German submarine that then sank the cruiser, and was rescued by the submarine, later being awarded the Iron Cross for his efforts.[133] Duquesne was later apprehended and tried by the authorities in the U.S. for insurance fraud, but managed to escape again.[134]
During the
Legacy
Kitchener is officially remembered in a chapel on the northwest corner of St Paul's Cathedral in London, near the main entrance, where a memorial service was held in his honour.[140]
In Canada, the city of Berlin,
Since 1970, the opening of new records has led historians to rehabilitate Kitchener's reputation to some extent. Robin Neillands, for instance, notes that Kitchener consistently rose in ability as he was promoted.[142] Some historians now praise his strategic vision in the First World War, especially his laying the groundwork for the expansion of munitions production and his central role in the raising of the British army in 1914 and 1915, providing a force capable of meeting Britain's continental commitment.[4]
His commanding image, appearing on recruiting posters demanding "Your country needs you!", remains recognised and parodied in popular culture.[143] In the 1972 movie Young Winston, Kitchener is portrayed by John Mills.[144] In the 2021 movie The King's Man, Kitchener is portrayed by Charles Dance.[145]
Memorials
- As a British soldier who was lost at sea in the First World War and has no known grave, Kitchener is commemorated on the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's Hollybrook Memorial at Hollybrook Cemetery, located at Southampton, Hampshire.[146]
- Blue plaques have been erected to mark where Kitchener lived in Carlton Gardens, Westminster[147] and at Broome Park near Canterbury.[148]
- The NW chapel of All Souls at Pieta in the chapel were sculpted by William Reid Dick.[150]
- A month after his death, the Lord Kitchener National Memorial Fund was set up by the Lord Mayor of London to honour his memory. It was used to aid casualties of the war, both practically and financially; following the war's end, the fund was used to enable university educations for soldiers, ex-soldiers, their sons and their daughters, a function it continues to perform today.[151] A Memorial Book of tributes and remembrances from Kitchener's peers, edited by Sir Hedley Le Bas, was printed to benefit the fund.[152]
- The Lord Kitchener Memorial Homes in Chatham, Kent, were built with funds from public subscription following Kitchener's death. A small terrace of cottages, they are used to provide affordable rented accommodation for servicemen and women who have seen active service or their widows and widowers.[153]
- A statue of Kitchener mounted on a horse is on Khartoum Road (near Fort Amherst) in Chatham, Kent.[154][155]
- The Kitchener Memorial on Mainland, Orkney, is on the cliff edge at Marwick Head (HY2325), near the spot where Kitchener died at sea. It is a square, crenellated stone tower with the inscription: "This tower was raised by the people of Orkney in memory of Field Marshal Earl Kitchener of Khartoum on that corner of his country which he had served so faithfully nearest to the place where he died on duty. He and his staff perished along with the officers and nearly all the men of HMS Hampshire on 5 June 1916."[156][157][158]
- In the early 1920s, a road on a new council estate in the Kates Hill area of Dudley, Worcestershire (now West Midlands) was named Kitchener Road in honour of Kitchener.[159]
- The east window of the chancel at St George's Church, Eastergate, West Sussex has stained glass commemorating Kitchener.[160]
- In December 2013, the two-pound coins in 2014 featuring Kitchener's "Call to Arms" on the reverse.[161]
- A memorial cross for Kitchener was unveiled at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate church in 1916 (near Liverpool Street station), perhaps one of the first memorials of the First World War in England.[162]
- One of the three houses of the Rashtriya Indian Military College, Dehradun, India was named after Kitchener.[163]
- A memorial tree was dedicated to Kitchener a month after his death along the Victoria and remains today whilst the surrounding township no longer exists.[164]
- Half-a-dozen local communities inscribed Kitchener's name on to the memorials they were already building to their own dead, alongside the names of ordinary soldiers and sailors who had answered his 1914 appeal for volunteers and would never return.[124]
- After a Court decision Kitchener's house, Wildflower Hall in Shimla, India, came into the possession of the Government of Himachal Pradesh in November 2023. An appeal by the hotel owner was rejected in February 2024.[165] Kitchener had the house built in 1902. In 1925 the original house was demolished and in 2001 replaced by a hotel owned by the Oberoi Group.[166]
Debate on Kitchener's sexuality
Kitchener was a lifelong bachelor. From his time in Egypt in 1892, he gathered around him a cadre of eager young and unmarried officers nicknamed "Kitchener's band of boys",[167] who included his friend Captain Oswald Fitzgerald, his "constant and inseparable companion", whom he appointed his aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria (1888–1896). They remained close until they died together on their voyage to Russia.[168] Rumour occasionally circulated that Kitchener was homosexual, and after his death a number of biographers suggested or hinted that he might have been a latent or active homosexual.[169][b]
Professor C. Brad Faught, chair of the Department of History at
Honours, decorations and arms
Decorations
Kitchener received numerous campaign and commemorative decorations from the British government, as well as several medals from allied nations.[176]
His other decorations included:
British
- Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter (KG) – 3 June 1915[177]
- Knight of the Order of St Patrick (KP) – 19 June 1911[178]
- )
- Member of the Order of Merit (OM) – 12 July 1902[64][182]
- Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) – 25 June 1909[183]
- )
- Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE) – 1 January 1908[187]
Foreign
- Order of Osmanieh (Ottoman Empire) first class – 7 December 1896[3][188] (second class – 30 April 1894;[189] third class – 11 June 1885[190])
- Order of the Medjidie (Ottoman Empire) first class – 18 November 1893[191] (second class – 18 June 1888[192])
- Order of Karađorđe's Star with swords, Kingdom of Serbia – 1918[193]
Honorary regimental appointments
- Honorary Colonel, Scottish Command Telegraph Companies (Army Troops, Royal Engineers) – 1898[194]
- Honorary Colonel, East Anglian Divisional Engineers, Royal Engineers – 1901[194]
- Honorary Colonel, 3rd (Reserve) Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers[194]
- Honorary Colonel, 4th, later 6th Battalion, Royal Scots – 1905[194]
- Colonel Commandant, Royal Engineers – 1906[194]
- Honorary Colonel, 7th Gurkha Rifles – 1908[194]
- Honorary Colonel, 1st County of London Yeomanry – 1910[194]
- Colonel-in-Chief, Corps of New Zealand Engineers – 1911[196]
- Regimental Colonel, Irish Guards – 1914[194]
Honorary degrees and offices
- Freedom of the borough, Southampton, 12 July 1902[64]
- Freedom of the borough, Ipswich, 22 September 1902[197][198]
- Freedom of the city, Sheffield, 30 September 1902.[199]
- Freedom of the borough, Chatham, 4 October 1902[200]
- Honorary Freedom of the City of Liverpool, 11 October 1902[201]
- Honorary Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers[202]
- Honorary Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Grocers, 1 August 1902.[203]
Arms
|
See also
- Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan – a reconquest of territory lost by the Khedives of Egypt in 1884 and 1885 during the Mahdist War
- Frances Parker – niece and a New Zealand-born British suffragette.[205]
- I Was Lord Kitchener's Valet – a clothing boutique which achieved fame in 1960s "Swinging London"
- Kitchener's Army – an all-volunteer army formed in the United Kingdom from 1914
- Kitchener bun – a type of sweet pastry made and sold in South Australia
- Kitchener, Ontario – Canadian city renamed from Berlin after Kitchener's death
- Scapegoats of the Empire– a book by George Witton
- Statue of the Earl Kitchener, London
References
- ^ Pakenham 1979, pp. 51, 573.
- ^ "BBC – History – The Boer Wars". BBC.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v (Kidd 1903, p. 528)
- ^ doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34341. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ Cassar 1977, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d e f g Heathcote 1999, p. 192.
- ^ Royle 1985, pp. 1, 15–6.
- ^ "No. 23694". The London Gazette. 6 January 1871. p. 38.
- ^ "Brother of Kitchener passes in Bermuda". The Atlanta Constitution. 8 March 1912. p. 29.
- ^ a b c Silberman 1982, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Hull 1885, pp. 199–222.
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{{cite book}}
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Sources
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link) Alt URL - Korieh, Chima J.; Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2007). Missions, States, and European Expansion in Africa. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415955591.
- Liddell Hart, Basil (1930). A History of the World War. Faber & Faber. ISBN 0333582616.
- MacLaren, Roy (1978). Canadians on the Nile, 1882–1898: Being the Adventures of the Voyageurs on the Khartoum Relief Expedition and Other Exploits. University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0774800945.
- Massie, Robert (2012). Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the Great War. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0307819932.
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- Pigott, Peter (2009). Canada In Sudan War Without Borders. Toronto: Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1550028492.
- Pollock, John (2001). Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0786708298.
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- Richardson, Frank M. (1981). Mars Without Venus. Imprint unknown. ISBN 978-0851581484.
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- Urban, Mark (2005). Generals: Ten British Generals Who Changed the World. London: Faber & Feber. ISBN 978-0571224876.
- Wood, Clement (1932). The man who killed Kitchener; the life of Fritz Joubert Duquesne. New York: William Faro, inc. ASIN B0006ALPOO.
- Woodward, David R. (1998). Field Marshal Sir William Robertson. Westport Connecticut & London: Praeger. ISBN 0275954226.
Further reading
- Arthur, Sir George (1920). Life of Lord Kitchener. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1616405656. (in 3 vols.)
- ISBN 978-1406737646.
- Chesterton, G. K. (1917). Lord Kitchener. London: The Field & Queen. archived
- Conder, C. R.; Kitchener, H. H. (1881–1885). E. H. Palmer; W. Besant (eds.). Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs of Topography, Orography, Hydrography and Archaeology (3 vols). London: Palestine Exploration Fund. OCLC 1894216.
- ASIN B000X9RY9S.
- ASIN B000XBC3W4.
- Hodson, Yolande (1997). "Kitchener, Horatio Herbert In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East Ed. Eric M. Meyers". ISBN 0195112172. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- Hunter, Archie (1996). Kitchener's Sword-arm: Life and Campaigns of General Sir Archibald Hunter. Spellmount Publishers. ISBN 978-1873376546.
- Hutchison, G.S. (1943). Kitchener: The Man; With a foreword by Field Marshal Lord Birdwood. No imprint.
- King, Peter (1986). The Viceroy's Fall: How Kitchener Destroyed Curzon. Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 0283993138.
- McCormick, Donald (1959). The Mystery of Lord Kitchener's Death. Putnam. ASIN B0000CK9BU.
- Magnus, Philip (1958). Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist. New York: E.P. Dutton. ASIN B0007IWHCY.
- Royle, Trevor (1985). The Kitchener Enigma. M. Joseph. ISBN 978-0718123857.
- Simkins, Peter (1988). Kitchener's Army. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1844155859.
- Warner, Philip (1985). Kitchener: The Man Behind the Legend. Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 0304367206. new edition Cassell (2006).
- ISBN 978-0099451860.
Notes
External links
- Works by or about Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener at Internet Archive
- Works by Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by the Earl Kitchener
- Kitchener Scholars' Fund Archived 25 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- The Melik Society
- National Portrait Gallery 112 portraits
- Lord Kitchener: Active Soldier, Active Freemason
- Newspaper clippings about Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Peter Simkins. "Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Kitchener, Earl". encyclopedia.1914–1918-online.net. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
- "Lord Horatio Kitchener (1850–1916)". BBC.
- "10 Facts about Lord Kitchener". historyhit.com.
- "Horatio Herbert Earl Kitchener of Khartoum". iwm.org.uk.
- "Herbert, 1st Earl Kitchener". westminster-abbey.org.
- "Field Marshal The 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum, KG". geni.com. 24 June 1850.