Horses in warfare
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The first evidence of horses in warfare dates from Eurasia between 4000 and 3000 BC. A Sumerian illustration of warfare from 2500 BC depicts some type of equine pulling wagons. By 1600 BC, improved harness and chariot designs made chariot warfare common throughout the Ancient Near East, and the earliest written training manual for war horses was a guide for training chariot horses written about 1350 BC. As formal cavalry tactics replaced the chariot, so did new training methods, and by 360 BC, the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon had written an extensive treatise on horsemanship. The effectiveness of horses in battle was also revolutionized by improvements in technology, such as the invention of the saddle, the stirrup, and the horse collar.
Many different types and sizes of horses were used in war, depending on the form of warfare. The type used varied with whether the horse was being ridden or driven, and whether they were being used for reconnaissance, cavalry charges, raiding, communication, or supply. Throughout history, mules and donkeys, as well as horses played a crucial role in providing support to armies in the field.
Horses were well suited to the warfare tactics of the
Horse cavalry began to be phased out after
Types of horse used in warfare
A fundamental principle of equine conformation is "form to function". Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the work performed, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and distance travelled.[1] Weight affects speed and endurance, creating a trade-off: armour added protection,[2] but added weight reduced maximum speed.[3] Therefore, various cultures had different military needs. In some situations, one primary type of horse was favoured over all others.[4] In other places, multiple types were needed; warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater speed and endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, when wearing heavy armour in actual combat.[5]
The average horse can carry up to approximately 30% of its body weight.[6] While all horses can pull more weight than they can carry, the maximum weight that horses can pull varies widely, depending on the build of the horse, the type of vehicle, road conditions, and other factors.[7][8][9] Horses harnessed to a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull as much as eight times their weight,[10] but far less if pulling wheelless loads over unpaved terrain.[11][12] Thus, horses that were driven varied in size and had to make a trade-off between speed and weight, just as did riding animals. Light horses could pull a small war chariot at speed.[13] Heavy supply wagons, artillery, and support vehicles were pulled by heavier horses or a larger number of horses.[14] The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also mattered: horses could pull greater weight with a horse collar than they could with a breast collar, and even less with an ox yoke.[15]
Light-weight
Light, oriental horses such as the ancestors of the modern Arabian, Barb, and Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance, and agility.[16] Such horses ranged from about 12 hands (48 inches, 122 cm) to just under 15 hands (60 inches, 152 cm), weighing approximately 360 to 450 kilograms (800 to 1,000 lb).[17] To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight tack and carry relatively light weapons such as bows, light spears, javelins, or later rifles. This was the original horse used for early chariot warfare, raiding, and light cavalry.[18]
Relatively light horses were used by many cultures, including the
Medium-weight
Medium-weight horses developed as early as the
Heavy-weight
Large, heavy horses, weighing from 680 to 910 kilograms (1,500 to 2,000 lb), the ancestors of today's
Ponies
The British Army's 2nd Dragoons in 1813 had 340 ponies of 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) and 55 ponies of 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm);[33] the Lovat Scouts, formed in 1899, were mounted on Highland ponies;[34] the British Army recruited 200 Dales ponies in World War II for use as pack and artillery animals;[35] and the British Territorial Army experimented with the use of Dartmoor ponies as pack animals in 1935, finding them to be better than mules for the job.[36]
Other equids
Horses were not the only
Training and deployment
The oldest known manual on training horses for chariot warfare was written c. 1350 BC by the
Whether horses were trained to pull chariots, to be ridden as light or heavy cavalry, or to carry the armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. They also learned to accept any sudden or unusual movements of humans while using a weapon or avoiding one.[44] Horses used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike, and even bite, thus becoming weapons themselves for the warriors they carried.[45]
In most cultures, a war horse used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins, responding primarily to the rider's legs and weight.[46] The horse became accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it, and learned to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armour.[44] Developing the balance and agility of the horse was crucial. The origins of the discipline of dressage came from the need to train horses to be both obedient and manoeuvrable.[30] The Haute ecole or "High School" movements of classical dressage taught today at the Spanish Riding School have their roots in manoeuvres designed for the battlefield. However, the airs above the ground were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.[47]
Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions.[48]
Technological innovations
Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven. However, evidence is scant, mostly simple images of human figures on horse-like animals drawn on rock or clay.[49][50] The earliest tools used to control horses were bridles of various sorts, which were invented nearly as soon as the horse was domesticated.[51] Evidence of bit wear appears on the teeth of horses excavated at the archaeology sites of the Botai culture in northern Kazakhstan, dated 3500–3000 BC.[52]
Harness and vehicles
The invention of the wheel was a major technological innovation that gave rise to
Even after the chariot had become obsolete as a tool of war, there still was a need for technological innovations in pulling technologies; horses were needed to pull heavy loads of supplies and weapons. The invention of the horse collar in China during the 5th century AD (Northern and Southern dynasties) allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle with the ox yokes or breast collars used in earlier times.[55] The horse collar arrived in Europe during the 9th century,[56] and became widespread by the 12th century.[57]
Riding equipment
Two major innovations that revolutionised the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup.
The saddle with a solid framework, or "tree", provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider, but was not widespread until the 2nd century AD.[43] However, it made a critical difference, as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. A solid tree, the predecessor of today's Western saddle, also allowed a more built-up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle.[61]
An invention that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. A toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC,
Tactics
The first
The use of horses in organised warfare was documented early in recorded history. One of the first depictions is the "war panel" of the Standard of Ur, in Sumer, dated c. 2500 BC, showing horses (or possibly onagers or mules) pulling a four-wheeled wagon.[53]
Chariot warfare
Among the earliest evidence of chariot use are the burials of horse and chariot remains by the Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan, dated to approximately 2000 BC.[74] The oldest documentary evidence of what was probably chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text, of the 18th century BC, which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of Salatiwara.[75] The Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot. Widespread use of the chariot in warfare across most of Eurasia coincides approximately with the development of the composite bow, known from c. 1600 BC. Further improvements in wheels and axles, as well as innovations in weaponry, soon resulted in chariots being driven in battle by Bronze Age societies from China to Egypt.[52]
The Hyksos invaders brought the chariot to Ancient Egypt in the 16th century BC and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward.[76][77][78] The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient world is the Hittite manual of Kikkuli, which dates to about 1350 BC, and describes the conditioning of chariot horses.[42][79]
Chariots existed in the Minoan civilization, as they were inventoried on storage lists from Knossos in Crete,[80] dating to around 1450 BC.[81] Chariots were also used in China as far back as the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BC), where they appear in burials. The high point of chariot use in China was in the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BC), although they continued in use up until the 2nd century BC.[82]
Descriptions of the tactical role of chariots in Ancient Greece and Rome are rare. The Iliad, possibly referring to Mycenaen practices used c. 1250 BC, describes the use of chariots for transporting warriors to and from battle, rather than for actual fighting.[80][83] Later, Julius Caesar, invading Britain in 55 and 54 BC, noted British charioteers throwing javelins, then leaving their chariots to fight on foot.[84][85]
Cavalry
Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were horse-mounted archers or javelin-throwers, dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III.[50] However, these riders sat far back on their horses, a precarious position for moving quickly, and the horses were held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus, these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry.[43] The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the Cimmerians, who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century BC and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II, approximately 721 BC.[86] Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century BC.[60] By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 BC, the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic riding position still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry.[43] The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry,[43][50] although not extensively, possibly due to the cost of keeping horses.[80]
In
Horse artillery
Once gunpowder was invented, another major use of horses was as
Asia
Central Asia
Relations between
South Asia
The literature of ancient
In technological innovation, the early toe loop stirrup is credited to the cultures of India, and may have been in use as early as 500 BC.
Mughal cavalry used gunpowder weapons, but were slow to replace the traditional composite bow.[115] Under the impact of European military successes in India, some Indian rulers adopted the European system of massed cavalry charges, although others did not.[116] By the 18th century, Indian armies continued to field cavalry, but mainly of the heavy variety.
East Asia
The Chinese used
The Japanese samurai fought as cavalry for many centuries.[119] They were particularly skilled in the art of using archery from horseback. The archery skills of mounted samurai were developed by training such as Yabusame, which originated in 530 AD and reached its peak under Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199 AD) in the Kamakura period.[120] They switched from an emphasis on mounted bowmen to mounted spearmen during the Sengoku period (1467–1615 AD).
Middle East
During the period when various
Mounted Muslim warriors conquered North Africa and the
Europe
Antiquity
Middle Ages
During the European Middle Ages, there were three primary types of war horses: the destrier, the courser, and the rouncey, which differed in size and usage. A generic word used to describe medieval war horses was charger, which appears interchangeable with the other terms.[127] The medieval war horse was of moderate size, rarely exceeding 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm). Heavy horses were logistically difficult to maintain and less adaptable to varied terrains.[128] The destrier of the early Middle Ages was moderately larger than the courser or rouncey, in part to accommodate heavier armoured knights.[129] However, destriers were not as large as draught horses, averaging between 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) and 15 hands (60 inches, 152 cm).[26] On the European continent, the need to carry more armour against mounted enemies such as the Lombards and Frisians led to the Franks developing heavier, bigger horses.[130] As the amount of armour and equipment increased in the later Middle Ages, the height of the horses increased; some late medieval horse skeletons were of horses over 1.5 metres (15 hands).[129]
Uses
The heavy cavalry charge, while it could be effective, was not a common occurrence.[134] Battles were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks,[135] by the end of the 14th century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight,[136] while their horses were sent to the rear, kept ready for pursuit.[137] Pitched battles were avoided if possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges,[138] and in the later Middle Ages as mounted raids called chevauchées, with lightly armed warriors on swift horses.[note 3]
The war horse was also seen in
Transition
The decline of the armoured knight was probably linked to changing structures of armies and various economic factors, and not obsolescence due to new technologies. However, some historians attribute the demise of the knight to the invention of gunpowder,[145] or to the English longbow.[146] Some link the decline to both technologies.[147] Others argue these technologies actually contributed to the development of knights: plate armour was first developed to resist early medieval crossbow bolts,[148] and the full harness worn by the early 15th century developed to resist longbow arrows.[149] From the 14th century onwards, most plate was made from hardened steel, which resisted early musket ammunition.[148] In addition, stronger designs did not make plate heavier; a full harness of musket-proof plate from the 17th century weighed 70 pounds (32 kg), significantly less than 16th century tournament armour.[150]
The move to predominately infantry-based battles from 1300 to 1550 was linked to both improved
Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies.Early modern period
During the
Light cavalry continued to play a major role, particularly after the
As regimental structures developed many units selected horses of uniform type and some, such as the
19th century
In the 19th century distinctions between heavy and light cavalry became less significant; by the end of the Peninsular War, heavy cavalry were performing the scouting and outpost duties previously undertaken by light cavalry, and by the end of the 19th century the roles had effectively merged.[166] Most armies at the time preferred cavalry horses to stand 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and weigh 990 to 1,100 pounds (450 to 500 kg), although cuirassiers frequently had heavier horses. Lighter horses were used for scouting and raiding. Cavalry horses were generally obtained at 5 years of age and were in service from 10 to 12 years, barring loss. However losses of 30–40% were common during a campaign due to conditions of the march as well as enemy action.[167] Mares and geldings were preferred over less-easily managed stallions.[168]
During the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars the cavalry's main offensive role was as shock troops. In defence cavalry were used to attack and harass the enemy's infantry flanks as they advanced. Cavalry were frequently used prior to an infantry assault, to force an infantry line to break and reform into formations vulnerable to infantry or artillery.[169] Infantry frequently followed behind in order to secure any ground won[170] or the cavalry could be used to break up enemy lines following a successful infantry action.
Mounted charges were carefully managed. A charge's maximum speed was 20 km/h; moving faster resulted in a break in formation and fatigued horses. Charges occurred across clear rising ground, and were effective against infantry both on the march and when deployed in a line or column.[171] A foot battalion formed in line was vulnerable to cavalry, and could be broken or destroyed by a well-formed charge.[172] Traditional cavalry functions altered by the end of the 19th century. Many cavalry units transferred in title and role to "mounted rifles": troops trained to fight on foot, but retaining mounts for rapid deployment, as well as for patrols, scouting, communications, and defensive screening. These troops differed from mounted infantry, who used horses for transport but did not perform the old cavalry roles of reconnaissance and support.[173]
Sub-Saharan Africa
Horses were used for warfare in the central
The African slave trade was closely tied to the imports of war horses, and as the prevalence of slaving decreased, fewer horses were needed for raiding. This significantly decreased the amount of mounted warfare seen in West Africa.
The Americas
The horse had been extinct in the
Indigenous populations of South America soon learned to use horses. In Chile, the Mapuche began using cavalry in the Arauco War in 1586. They drove the Spanish out of Araucanía at the beginning of the 17th century. Later, the Mapuche conducted mounted raids known as Malónes, first on Spanish, then on Chilean and Argentine settlements until well into the 19th century.[185] In North America, Native Americans also quickly learned to use horses. In particular, the people of the Great Plains, such as the Comanche and the Cheyenne, became renowned horseback fighters. By the 19th century, they presented a formidable force against the United States Army.[186]
During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the Continental Army made relatively little use of cavalry, primarily relying on infantry and a few dragoon regiments.[187] The United States Congress eventually authorized regiments specifically designated as cavalry in 1855. The newly formed American cavalry adopted tactics based on experiences fighting over vast distances during the Mexican War (1846–1848) and against indigenous peoples on the western frontier, abandoning some European traditions.[188]
During the
20th century
Although cavalry was used extensively throughout the world during the 19th century, horses became less important in warfare at the beginning of the 20th century. Light cavalry was still seen on the battlefield, but formal mounted cavalry began to be phased out for combat during and immediately after World War I, although units that included horses still had military uses well into World War II.[192]
World War I
World War I saw great changes in the use of cavalry. The mode of warfare changed, and the use of trench warfare, barbed wire and machine guns rendered traditional cavalry almost obsolete. Tanks, introduced in 1917, began to take over the role of shock combat.[193]
Early in the War, cavalry skirmishes were common, and horse-mounted troops widely used for reconnaissance.[194] On the Western Front cavalry were an effective flanking force during the "Race to the Sea" in 1914, but were less useful once trench warfare was established.[195][196] There a few examples of successful shock combat, and cavalry divisions also provided important mobile firepower.[159] Cavalry played a greater role on the Eastern Front, where trench warfare was less common.[196] On the Eastern Front, and also against the Ottomans, the "cavalry was literally indispensable."[159] British Empire cavalry proved adaptable, since they were trained to fight both on foot and while mounted, while other European cavalry relied primarily on shock action.[159]
On both fronts, the horse was also used as a pack animal. Because railway lines could not withstand artillery bombardments, horses carried ammunition and supplies between the railheads and the rear trenches, though the horses generally were not used in the actual trench zone.[197] This role of horses was critical, and thus horse fodder was the single largest commodity shipped to the front by some countries.[197] Following the war, many cavalry regiments were converted to mechanised, armoured divisions, with light tanks developed to perform many of the cavalry's original roles.[198]
World War II
Several nations used horse units during
Throughout the war, horses and mules were an essential form of transport, especially by the British in the rough terrain of Southern Europe and the Middle East.[202] The United States Army utilised a few cavalry and supply units during the war, but there were concerns that the Americans did not use horses often enough. In the campaigns in North Africa, generals such as George S. Patton lamented their lack, saying, "had we possessed an American cavalry division with pack artillery in Tunisia and in Sicily, not a German would have escaped."[192]
The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end of the war for transportation of troops and supplies. The German Army, strapped for motorised transport because its factories were needed to produce tanks and aircraft, used around 2.75 million horses – more than it had used in World War I.[197] One German infantry division in Normandy in 1944 had 5,000 horses.[165] The Soviets used 3.5 million horses.[197]
Recognition
While many statues and memorials have been erected to human heroes of war, often shown with horses, a few have also been created specifically to honor horses or animals in general. One example is the
Horses have also at times received medals for extraordinary deeds. After the Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean War, a surviving horse named Drummer Boy, ridden by an officer of the 8th Hussars, was given an unofficial campaign medal by his rider that was identical to those awarded to British troops who served in the Crimea, engraved with the horse's name and an inscription of his service.[205] A more formal award was the PDSA Dickin Medal, an animals' equivalent of the Victoria Cross, awarded by the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals charity in the United Kingdom to three horses that served in World War II.[204]
Modern uses
Today, many of the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications, including exhibitions,
Active military
Organised armed fighters on horseback are occasionally seen. The best-known current examples are the Janjaweed, militia groups seen in the Darfur region of Sudan, who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations in the Darfur conflict.[207] Many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted military units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the conflict in Afghanistan.[208]
At the beginning of
The only remaining operationally ready, fully horse-mounted regular regiment in the world is the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry.[214]
Law enforcement and public safety
Mounted police have been used since the 18th century, and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds, patrol public parks, keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties. Today, many cities still have mounted police units. In rural areas, horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain, crowd control at religious shrines, and border patrol.[215]
In rural areas, law enforcement that operates outside of incorporated cities may also have mounted units. These include specially deputised, paid or volunteer mounted search and rescue units sent into roadless areas on horseback to locate missing people.[216] Law enforcement in protected areas may use horses in places where mechanised transport is difficult or prohibited. Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.[217]
Ceremonial and educational uses
Many countries throughout the world maintain traditionally trained and historically uniformed cavalry units for ceremonial, exhibition, or educational purposes. One example is the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's
Horses are also used in many historical reenactments.[223] Reenactors try to recreate the conditions of the battle or tournament with equipment that is as authentic as possible.[224]
Equestrian sport
Modern-day Olympic equestrian events are rooted in cavalry skills and classical horsemanship.
See also
Notes
- ^ The Royal Armouries used a 15.2 hand Lithuanian Heavy Draught mare as a model for statues displaying various 15th and 16th century horse armour, as her body shape was an excellent fit.[29]
- Kohistan[112]
- ^ Chevauchées were the preferred form of warfare for the English during the Hundred Years' War[139] and the Scots in the Wars of Independence.[140]
- ^ Over one million horses and mules died during the American Civil War.[189]
- ^ Of a total of 20,500 troops, at least 17,000 were cavalry[190]
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Further reading
- Barton, P. G. (2019), "The Medieval Powys Warhorse", Montgomeryshire Collections, 107
- Hacker, Barton C. (August 1997). "Military Technology and World History: A Reconnaissance". The History Teacher. 30 (4): 461–487. JSTOR 494141.
- Harrison, Sunny (2022). "How to make a warhorse: violence and behavioural control in late medieval hippiatric treatises". Journal of Medieval History.
External links
- The Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies (IAES)
- The Society of the Military Horse
- Historic films showing horses in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu
- Warhorse: the archaeology of a medieval revolution?, AHRC funded research project by the University of Exeter and the University of East Anglia