Hosni Mubarak
His Excellency Marshal Hosni Mubarak | |
---|---|
حسني مبارك | |
4th President of Egypt | |
In office 14 October 1981 – 11 February 2011 | |
Prime Minister | See list
|
Vice President |
|
Preceded by |
|
Succeeded by |
|
Prime Minister of Egypt | |
In office 7 October 1981 – 2 January 1982 | |
President |
|
Preceded by | Anwar Sadat |
Succeeded by | Ahmad Fuad Mohieddin |
Vice-President of Egypt | |
In office 16 April 1975 – 14 October 1981 | |
President | Anwar Sadat |
Preceded by | |
Succeeded by | Omar Suleiman Egyptian Air Academy |
In office November 1967 – June 1969[1] | |
Preceded by | Yahia Saleh Al-Aidaros |
Succeeded by | Mahmoud Shaker |
Personal details | |
Born | Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak 4 May 1928 Kafr-El Meselha, Kingdom of Egypt |
Died | 25 February 2020 Cairo, Egypt | (aged 91)
Political party | NDP (1978–2011) ASU (before 1978) |
Spouse | |
Children | |
Alma mater |
|
Signature | |
Military service | |
Branch/service | Egyptian Air Force |
Years of service | 1950–1975 |
Rank | Air chief marshal[2][c] |
Commands |
|
| |
Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak
Before he entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the Egyptian Air Force. He served as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rose to the rank of air chief marshal in 1973.[2] In 1975, he was appointed vice president by President Anwar Sadat and assumed the presidency after his assassination in 1981. Mubarak's presidency lasted almost thirty years, making him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha, who ruled the country for 43 years from 1805 to 1848.[3]
Less than two weeks after the assassination of President Sadat, Mubarak quickly assumed the presidency in the single-candidate 1981 referendum, and renewed his term through single-candidate referendums in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Under United States pressure, Mubarak held the country's first multi-party election in 2005, which he won. In 1989, he succeeded in reinstating Egypt's membership in the Arab League, which had been frozen since the Camp David Accords with Israel, and in returning the Arab League's headquarters back to Cairo. He was known for his supportive stance on the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, in addition to his role in the Gulf War.[4] Despite providing stability and reasons for economic growth, his rule was repressive. The state of emergency, which had not been lifted since the 1967 war, stifled political opposition, the security services became known for their brutality, and corruption became widespread.[5]
Mubarak stepped down during the
On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor ordered Mubarak and his two sons
Mubarak died in 2020, aged 91.[19][20] He was honoured with a state funeral and buried at a family plot outside Cairo.[21]
Early life and education
Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha,
Air Force career
Mubarak served as an
Mubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bombers. In 1964 he gained a place at the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a wing commander, then as a base commander; he commanded the Cairo West Air Base in October 1966 then briefly commanded the Beni Suef Air Base.[2] In November 1967, Mubarak became the Air Force Academy's commander when he was credited with doubling the number of Air Force pilots and navigators during the pre-October War years.[25] Two years later, he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force.[23]
In 1972, Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defense. On 6 October 1973, at the breakout of the
Vice President of Egypt
In April 1975, President
Sadat also sent Mubarak to numerous meetings with foreign leaders outside the Arab world.[36] Mubarak's political significance as Vice President can be seen from a conversation held on 23 June 1975 between Foreign Minister Fahmy and US Ambassador Hermann Eilts. Fahmy told Eilts that "Mubarak is, for the time being at least, likely to be a regular participant in all sensitive meetings" and he advised the ambassador not to antagonize Mubarak because he was Sadat's personal choice.[33] Though supportive of Sadat's earlier efforts made to bring the Sinai Peninsula back into Egyptian control,[35] Mubarak agreed with the views of various Arab leaders and opposed the Camp David Accords for failing to address other issues relating to the Arab–Israeli conflict.[35] Sadat even transferred his decision-making authority to Mubarak temporarily at times he went on vacations.[37]
President of Egypt
Mubarak was injured during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant
Egypt's return to the Arab League
Until
The Islamic Republic of Iran had, from 1979 onward, been making the claim to be the leader of the Islamic world, and in particular
During the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, Egypt supported Iraq militarily and economically with one million Egyptians working in Iraq to take the place of Iraqi men serving on the front-line.[41] In December 1983, Mubarak welcomed Yasser Arafat of the PLO to a summit in Cairo, marking a rapprochement with the PLO, and from that time, Egypt became the PLO's main ally.[42] In 1985, the Achille Lauro hijacking caused a major crisis in relations when the U.S Air Force forced an EgyptAir plane carrying the Achille Lauro hijackers to Tunisia to land in Italy; otherwise the plane would have been shot down. Mubarak stated in a press conference on 12 October 1985: "I am very wounded. Now there is coolness and strain as a result of this incident."[43] Egypt had been ostracized by the other Arab states for signing the Camp David Accords in 1979, but Egypt's weight within the Arab world had led to Egypt regaining its "central place in the Arab world" by 1989.[44] In 1989, Egypt was re-admitted as a full member to the Arab League and the League's headquarters were moved to their original location in Cairo.[45]
Governing style
Throughout the 1980s, Mubarak increased the production of affordable housing, clothing, furniture, and medicine. By the time he became President, Mubarak was one of a few Egyptian officials who refused to visit Israel and vowed to take a less enthusiastic approach to normalizing relations with the Israeli government.[35] Under Mubarak, Israeli journalists often wrote about the "cold peace" with Egypt, observing Israeli–Egyptian relations were frosty at best.[46] Mubarak was quick to deny that his policies would result in difficulties for Egyptian–Israeli dealings in the future.[35]
The Israeli historian Major Efraim Karsh wrote in 2006 that in Egypt "...numberless articles, scholarly writings, books, cartoons, public statements, and radio and television programs, Jews are painted in the blackest terms imaginable".[47] Karsh accused Mubarak of being personally antisemitic, writing he "evidently shared the premises" of his propaganda.[46]
Egypt's heavy dependence on US aid[48] and its hopes for US pressure on Israel for a Palestinian settlement continued under Mubarak.[49] He quietly improved relations with the former Soviet Union. In 1987, Mubarak won an election to a second six-year term.[24]
In his early years in power, Mubarak expanded the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service (Mabahith Amn ad-Dawla) and the Central Security Forces (anti-riot and containment forces).[50] According to Tarek Osman, the experience of seeing his predecessor assassinated "right in front of him" and his lengthy military career—which was longer than those of Nasser or Sadat—may have instilled in him more focus and absorption with security than seemed the case with the latter heads of state. Mubarak sought advice and confidence not in leading ministers, senior advisers or leading intellectuals, but from his security chiefs—"interior ministers, army commanders, and the heads of the ultra-influential intelligence services."[51] All through the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, violations of human rights by the security services in Egypt were described as "systematic" by Amnesty International.[52] In 2007, Amnesty International reported that the Egyptian police routinely engaged in "beatings, electric shocks, prolonged suspension by the wrists and ankles in contorted positions, death threats and sexual abuse".[52] The state remained large under Mubarak employing 8 million people out of a population of 75 million.[52]
Because of his positions against
Gulf War of 1991
Egypt was a member of the allied coalition during the 1991 Gulf War; Egyptian infantry were some of the first to land in Saudi Arabia to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait.[56] Egypt's participation in the war solidified its central role in the Arab World and brought financial benefits for the Egyptian government.[56] Reports of sums of up to US$20 billion worth of debt forgiveness were published in the news media.[56] According to The Economist:
The programme worked like a charm: a textbook case, says the [International Monetary Fund]. In fact, luck was on Hosni Mubarak's side; when the US was hunting for a military alliance to force Iraq out of Kuwait, Egypt's president joined without hesitation. After the war, his reward was that America, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and Europe forgave Egypt around $20 billion of debt.[57]
Stance on the invasion of Iraq in 2003
President Mubarak spoke out against the
2005 elections
President Mubarak was re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Each time, Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by Parliament then confirmed without opposition in a referendum.[60]
The September 2005 ballot was a multiple-candidate election rather than a referendum, but the electoral institutions and security apparatus remain under the control of the President. On 28 July 2005, Mubarak announced his candidacy. The election was scheduled for 7 September 2005; according to civil organizations that observed the election it was marred by mass rigging activities.[61] In a move widely seen as political persecution, Ayman Nour, a dissident and candidate for the El-Ghad Party ("Tomorrow party") was convicted of forgery and sentenced to five years' hard labor on 24 December 2005.[62]
Widespread corruption
While in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of the Interior rose dramatically. Political figures and young activists were imprisoned without trial.[63] Illegal, undocumented, hidden detention facilities were established,[64][65] and universities, mosques, and newspaper staff were rejected because of their political views.[66]
In 2005 Freedom House, a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian government under Mubarak expanded bureaucratic regulations, registration requirements, and other controls that often feed corruption. Freedom House said, "corruption remained a significant problem under Mubarak, who promised to do much, but in fact never did anything significant to tackle it effectively".[67]
In 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index report assessed Egypt with a CPI score of 3.1, based on perceptions of the degree of corruption from business people and country analysts, with 10 being very clean and 0 being highly corrupt. Egypt ranked 98th out of the 178 countries included in the report.[68]
Wealth and allegations of personal corruption
In February 2011, ABC News reported that experts believed the personal wealth of Mubarak and his family was between US$40 billion and US$70 billion from military contracts made during his time as an air force officer.[69] The Guardian reported that Mubarak and his family might be worth up to US$70 billion garnered from corruption, bribes and legitimate business activities. The money was said to be spread out in various bank accounts, including some in Switzerland and the UK, and invested in foreign property. The newspaper said some of the information about the family's wealth might be ten years old.[70] According to Newsweek, these allegations are poorly substantiated and lack credibility.[71]
On 12 February 2011, the government of Switzerland announced it was freezing the Swiss bank accounts of Mubarak and his family.
On 23 February 2011, the Egyptian newspaper Eldostor reported that a "knowledgeable source" described the order of the Prosecutor General to freeze Mubarak's assets and the threats of a legal action as nothing but a signal for Mubarak to leave Egypt after a number of attempts were made to encourage him to leave willingly.[75] In February 2011, Voice of America reported that Egypt's top prosecutor had ordered a travel ban and an asset freeze for Mubarak and his family as he considered further action.[76] On 21 May 2014 a Cairo court convicted Mubarak and his sons of embezzling the equivalent of US$17.6 million of state funds which were allocated for renovation and maintenance of presidential palaces but were instead diverted to upgrade private family homes. The court ordered the repayment of US$17.6 million, fined the trio US$2.9 million, and sentenced Mubarak to three years in prison and each of his sons to four years.[77]
Presidential succession
The National Democratic Party of Egypt continued to state that Hosni Mubarak was to be the party's only candidate in the 2011 Presidential Election. Mubarak said on 1 February 2011 that he had no intention of standing in the 2011 presidential election. When this declaration failed to ease the protests, Mubarak's vice president stated that Gamal Mubarak would not run for president. With the escalation of the demonstration and the fall of Mubarak, Hamdy El-Sayed, a former influential figure in the National Democratic Party, said Gamal Mubarak intended to usurp the presidency, assisted by then Interior Minister, Habib El-Adly.[78]
Israeli–Palestinian conflict
During his presidency, Mubarak upheld the U.S.-brokered
In October 2000, Mubarak hosted an emergency summit meeting at
In June 2007, Mubarak held a summit meeting at
The agreement required Hamas to end rocket attacks on Israel and to enforce the ceasefire throughout
Revolution and overthrow
Protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities in January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the
On 10 February, contrary to rumours,[94] Mubarak said he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned.[7] The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt. Discussions about the nation's future direction began.[95] It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a caretaker government.[96]
Protests
On 25 January 2011, protests against Mubarak and his government erupted in Cairo and around Egypt calling for Mubarak's resignation.
Two and a half hours after Mubarak's resignation, an Egyptian military member came on air and thanked Mubarak for "putting the interests of the country first." The statement, which said "The Supreme Council is currently studying the situation," did not state what the council would do next.[99]
Post-resignation life
Mubarak made no media appearances after his resignation. Except for his family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyone—even his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating; some reports said he was in a coma. Most sources said he was no longer interested in performing any duties and wanted to "die in Sharm El-Sheikh".[100][101]
On 28 February 2011, the General Prosecutor of Egypt issued an order prohibiting Mubarak and his family from leaving Egypt. It was reported that Mubarak was in contact with his lawyer in case of possible criminal charges against him.[102] As a result, Mubarak and his family were placed under house arrest at a presidential palace in the Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh.[103] On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor originally appointed by Mubarak ordered the former president and both his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power amid growing suspicion that the Egyptian military was more aligned with the Mubaraks than with the revolution. Gamal and Alaa were jailed in Tora Prison; state television reported that Mubarak was in police custody in a hospital near his residence following a heart attack.[9] Former Israeli Cabinet minister Benjamin Ben Eliezer told Israeli Radio that he had offered Mubarak refuge in the southern Israeli city of Eilat.[104]
On 11 May 2013, he told
Trial
On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters during the revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence, deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".[10]
On 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found Mubarak guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200 million—about US$33.6 million—which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets. This was the first court ruling against Mubarak, who would next have to answer to the murder charges.[106][107]
The trial of Hosni Mubarak, his sons Ala'a and Gamal, former interior minister Habib el-Adly and six former top police officials began on 3 August 2011 at a temporary criminal court at the Police Academy in north Cairo. They were charged with corruption and the premeditated killing of peaceful protesters during the mass movement to oust the Mubarak government, the latter of which carries the death penalty.[108] The trial was broadcast on Egyptian television; Mubarak made an unexpected appearance—his first since his resignation. He was taken into the court on a hospital bed and held in a cage for the session. Upon hearing the charges against him, Mubarak pleaded not guilty. Judge Ahmed Refaat adjourned the court, ruling that Mubarak be transferred under continued arrest to the military hospital on the outskirts of Cairo. The second court session scheduled for 15 August.[109] On 15 August, the resumed trial lasted three hours. At the end of the session, Rifaat announced that the third session would take place on 5 September and that the remainder of the proceedings would be off-limits to television cameras.[110]
The trial resumed in December 2011 and lasted until January 2012. The defense strategy was that Mubarak never actually resigned, was still president, and thus had immunity.[111] On 2 June 2012, Mubarak was found guilty of not halting the killing of protesters by the Egyptian security forces; he was sentenced to life imprisonment.[112] The court found Mubarak not guilty of ordering the crackdown on Egyptian protesters. All other charges against Mubarak, including profiteering and economic fraud, were dismissed. Mubarak's sons, Habib el-Adly, and six senior police officials were all acquitted for their roles in the killing of demonstrators because of a lack of evidence.[113] According to The Guardian, the relatives of those killed by Mubarak's forces were angered by the verdict.[114][115] Thousands of demonstrators protested the verdict in Tahrir Square, Arbein Square and Al-Qaed Ibrahim Square.[115]
In January 2013, an appeals court overturned Mubarak's life sentence and ordered a retrial.[116] He remained in custody and returned to court on 11 May 2013 for a retrial on charges of complicity in the murder of protesters.[117] On 21 August 2013, a Cairo court ordered his release. Judicial sources confirmed that the court had upheld a petition from Mubarak's longtime lawyer that called for his release.[118] A day later, interim prime minister Hazem El Beblawi ordered that Mubarak be put under house arrest.[119]
On 21 May 2014, while awaiting retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on charges of embezzlement; Mubarak was sentenced to three years in prison, while his sons received four-year sentences. The three were fined the equivalent of US$2.9 million, and were ordered to repay US$17.6 million.[77]
In November 2014, conspiracy to kill charges were dismissed by the Cairo Criminal Court on a technicality.[120] The court also cleared Mubarak of corruption charges.[121] On 13 January 2015, Egypt's Court of Cassation overturned Mubarak's and his sons' embezzlement charges, the last remaining conviction against him, and ordered a retrial.[122] A retrial on the corruption charges led to a conviction and sentencing to three years in prison in May 2015 for Mubarak, with four-year terms for his sons, Gamal and Alaa.[15] It was not immediately clear whether the sentence would take into account time already served—Mubarak and his sons have already spent more than three years in prison, so potentially will not have to serve any additional time.[123] Supporters of Mubarak jeered the decision when it was announced in a Cairo courtroom on 9 May.[124][125] The sentence also included a 125 million Egyptian pound (US$16.3 million) fine, and required the return of 21 million embezzled Egyptian pounds (US$2.7 million). These amounts were previously paid after the first trial.[124]
Support for Sisi
Though mostly out of the public eye, Mubarak granted a rare interview in February 2014 with Kuwaiti journalist
Health problems
In July 2010, the media said Egypt was about to undergo dramatic change because Mubarak was thought to have cancer and because of the scheduled
In June 2011, Mubarak's lawyer Farid el-Deeb said his client "has stomach cancer, and the cancer is growing".[135] Mubarak had undergone surgery for the condition in Germany in 2010 and also suffered from circulatory problems with an irregular heart beat.[135] On 13 July 2011, unconfirmed reports stated that Mubarak had slipped into a coma at his residence after giving his final speech, and on 17 July, el-Deeb confirmed the reports.[136] On 26 July 2011, Mubarak was reported to be depressed and refusing solid food while in hospital being treated for a heart condition and in custody awaiting trial.[137]
On 2 June 2012, Mubarak was reported as have suffered a health crisis while being transported to prison after his conviction on the charges of complicity in the killing of protestors. Some sources reported he had had a heart attack.
On 27 December 2012, Mubarak was taken from Tora Prison to the Cairo military hospital after falling and breaking a rib. He was released from prison in August 2013.[143]
On 19 June 2014, Mubarak slipped in the bathroom at the military hospital in
Acquittal
On 2 March 2017, the
Death
Hosni Mubarak died on 25 February 2020, in a Cairo military hospital, at the age of 91.
Following his death, President El-Sisi praised Mubarak for his role in the Yom Kippur War, but remained silent over his role as president. The government-controlled newspaper Al-Ahram eulogized Mubarak for his military and political career.[146]
Personal life
Hosni Mubarak was married to Suzanne Mubarak and together they had two sons: Alaa and Gamal. Both sons served four years in Egyptian jail for corruption and were released in 2015.[144] Through his son Alaa, Mubarak has two grandsons, Mohammed and Omar; and through his son Gamal, he has a granddaughter Farida. Mohammed died in 2009 from a cerebral hemorrhage.[147][148]
In April 2016, Alaa Mubarak was named in the Panama Papers as someone with financial interests that intersect with that of Mossack Fonseca, the firm implicated in that scandal.[149]
Awards
National
- Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic
- Grand Cordon of the Order of the Nile, 1st class
- Recipient of the Order of the Sinai Star[150]
- Honor Star Medal, twice[151]
- Military Training Medal[151]
Foreign honours
- Brunei: Member of the Family Order of Laila Utama
- Order of the Balkan Mountains
- Central African Republic: Grand Officer of the Order of Recognition
- Democratic Republic of Congo: Grand Officer of the National Order of the Leopard (Zaire)
- Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant
- France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
- Germany: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
- Greece: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer
- India: Recipient of the Jawaharlal Nehru Award[152]
- Indonesia: First Class (Adipurna) of the Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 1st class
- Pahlavi dynasty:
- First Class of the Order of Zolfaghar
- Recipient of the Hamayon Merit[151]
- Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
- Japan: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
- Kazakhstan: Recipient of the Order of the Golden Eagle
- Kuwait: Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great
- Mali: Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali
- Mexico: Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle
- Nepal: Member First Class of the Order of the Star of Nepal
- Niger: Grand Cross of the National Order of Niger
- North Korea: First Class of the Order of the National Flag
- Oman:
- 1st Class of the Order of Oman, civil
- Recipient of the Civil Order of Oman
- Palestine: Honor Star Medal[151]
- Poland: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland
- Portugal: Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry
- Saudi Arabia:
- First Class of the Order of King Abdulaziz
- Second Class of the Order of King Abdulaziz
- Excellent Degree[151]
- South Africa: Grand Officer of the Order of Good Hope
- Spain: Knight of the Collar of Order of Isabella the Catholic[153]
- Sudan: Recipient of the Collar of Honour
- Royal Order of the Seraphim[154]
- Syria:
- Member First Class of the Order of the Umayyads
- Knight of the Military Honor Medal[151]
- Member First Class of the
- Tunisia:
- Grand Cross of the Order of the Republic
- Grand Cross of the Order of 7 November 1987
- Order of the State of Republic of Turkey[155]
- United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
- Order of the Yugoslav Great Star on 26 February 1984[156]
References
- Egyptian Arabic: محمد حسني السيد مبارك, romanized: Muḥammad Ḥusnī as-Sayyid Mubārak, Egyptian Arabic: [mæˈħæmmæd ˈħosni (ʔe)sˈsæjjed moˈbɑːɾɑk]
- ISBN 978-1-4381-0467-6.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Air Marshal Mohammed Hosni Mubarak". Egyptian Armed Forces Web Site. Egyptian Armed Forces. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010.
- ^ Slackman, Michael (8 March 2010). "Hosni Mubarak". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "Profile: Hosni Mubarak". BBC News. 24 March 2017.
- ^ "Egypt profile – Overview". BBC News. 6 November 2015. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (28 January 2011). "Egypt Calls in Army as Protesters Rage". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ a b Kirkpatrick, David D.; Shadid, Anthony; Cowell, Alan (11 February 2011). "Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader". BBC News. 11 February 2010. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ a b Kirkpatrick, David D.; Stack, Liam (13 March 2011). "Prosecutors Order Mubarak and Sons Held". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Mubarak to be tried for murder of protesters". Reuters. 24 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
- ^ "Trial of Egypt's Hosni Mubarak starts". BBC News. 3 August 2011.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak sentenced to life in prison". the Guardian. 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt: Q&A on the Trial of Hosni Mubarak". Human Rights Watch. 28 May 2012.
- ^ Egypt's Mubarak to get retrial Archived 20 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 3 News. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
- ^ a b "Egypt's Hosni Mubarak jailed in corruption retrial". BBC News. 9 May 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
- ^ "Jailed sons of Egypt's deposed leader Hosni Mubarak freed". Associated Press. 13 October 2015.
- ^ a b "Egypt's Hosni Mubarak acquitted over 2011 protester deaths". 3 March 2017.
- ^ a b "Egypt's Hosni Mubarak freed after six years in detention". BBC News. 24 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
- ^ "Egypt's former president Hosni Mubarak dies at 91". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ "Former Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak dies". BBC News. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ Ruth Michaelson (26 February 2020). "Hosni Mubarak buried with full military honours". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ "Profile: Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak". Xinhua News. 10 February 2010. Archived from the original on 14 February 2011.
- ^ a b "Hosni Mubarak (1928–2020): The rise and fall of Egypt's longest-ruling president". Mada. 25 February 2020. Archived from the original on 25 February 2020.
- ^ a b Epatko, Larisa (11 February 2011). "Timeline: Hosni Mubarak, Egypt's President for Three Decades, Resigns". Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ "Staff Group Captain Mohammed Hosni Mubarak". Egyptian Armed Forces Web Site. Egyptian Armed Forces. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011.
- ^ a b CNN Library, Hosni Mubarak Fast Facts. 31 May 2014
- ^ de Borchgrave, Arnaud (2 February 2011). "The Mubarak legend – Longtime strongman can't withstand media barrage". The Washington Times. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ "Middle East factfile: Key figures". The Daily Telegraph. UK. 15 January 2002. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2011.
- ^ "كتابات مصراوي – هيكل يفجر قنبلة مدوية حول لغز بقاء مبارك بشرم الشيخ". Masrawy. 21 February 2011. Archived from the original on 24 April 2011.
- ^ Khalid, Osama (26 February 2011). ابنة الفريق سعدالدين الشاذلى لـ"المصري اليوم": "مبارك" زوّر التاريخ ووضع صورته مكان والدى فى "غرفة عمليات أكتوبر". Almasry Alyoum (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 25 April 2011.
- ^ El-Tablawy, Tarek. "Egypt's Hosni Mubarak, 'pharaoh' president ousted during Arab Spring, dies at 91". Fortune. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ "Eilts to Kissinger, July 22, 1975". Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ a b "Eilts to Kissinger, September 3, 1975". Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ "Hermann Eilts (US Ambassador to Egypt) to Henry Kissinger, September 5, 1975". Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f Olfat M. El Tohamy (14 October 1981). "Egypt's Hosni Mubarak picks up Sadat's reins: profile". The Christian Science Monitor. p. 2. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ "Hermann Eilts to Henry Kissinger, December 31, 1975". Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ "Hermann Eilts (US Ambassador to Egypt) to Cyrus Vance, 12 October 1978".
- ^ Ajami, Fouad (26 July 2010). "The Cop on the Banks of the Nile". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ American Foreign Policy Basic Documents 1977–1980 (Communiqué by Arab League Council, 31 March 1979). Washington DC: Department of State. 1983. pp. 687–690. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ OCLC 62408708.
- ^ OCLC 62408708.
- OCLC 62408708.
- ^ Bernard Gwertzman (13 October 1985). "Hijacking Causes Chilling of U.S.-Egypt Relationship". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
- OCLC 62408708.
- ^ "Middle East – Country profiles – Country profile: Egypt". BBC News. 17 November 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
- ^ OCLC 62408708.
- OCLC 62408708.
- ISBN 978-1-61797-054-2.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 170
- ^ Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, pp. 170–1
- ^ a b c "No paradise". The Economist. 15 July 2010. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ BBC News, Profile: Hosni Mubarak. 22 August 2013.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-3084-2.
- ^ Daniszewski, John (7 September 1999). "Man Killed After Injuring Mubarak". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ a b c al-Shibeeb, Dina (14 August 2015). "Top 21 faces of the Gulf War". Al-Arabiya News. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ "The IMF's model pupil". The Economist. 18 March 1999. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
- ^ "Mubarak warns of '100 bin Ladens'". CNN. 31 March 2003. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak: "U.S withdrawal would hurt Iraq"". USA Today. 9 April 2006. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-230-61437-6.
- ^ "Mubarak opponents take to streets, allege rigging". LivePunjab. 12 September 2005. Archived from the original on 11 February 2011.
- ^ Slackman, Michael (25 December 2005). "Testing Egypt, Mubarak Rival Is Sent to Jail". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
- ^ Suzanne Choney (27 January 2011). "Egyptian bloggers brave police intimidation". NBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Jane Mayer (30 October 2006). "The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent". The New Yorker. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Kalla Fakta (18 May 2004). "Striptease brevpapperl Agent". trojkan.se. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011.
- ^ Jack Shenker (22 November 2010). "Egyptian elections: independents fight for hearts and minds in 'fixed ballot'". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ "Country Report – Egypt". freedomhouse.org. 2005. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ "CPI 2010 table". Transparency International. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
- ^ Kim, Susanna (2 February 2011). "Egypt's Mubarak likely to retain vast wealth". ABC News. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ Mubarak family fortune could reach $70bn, say experts, The Guardian
- ^ Dickey, Christopher (21 February 2011). "The Tragedy of Mubarak". Newsweek. p. 18.
- ^ "Switzerland freezes assets of Mubarak". Deccan Herald. 12 February 2011.
- ^ "ط§ظ"ط£ظˆظ"ظ‰ – ط§ظ"ظ†ط§ط¦ط¨ ط§ظ"ط¹ط§ظ… ظٹط·ظ"ط¨ طھط¬ظ…ظٹط¯ ط£ط±طµط¯ط ظ…ط¨ط§ط±ظƒ ظˆط¹ط§ط¦ظ"طھظ‡". Ahram. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011.
- ^ "بوابة الوفد الالكترونية". الوفد.
- ^ "تجميد أرصدة مبارك إجراء لإجباره على الخروج من مصر بعد رفضه مطالبات مسبقة, الدستور". Dostor. 22 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 April 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Issues Travel Ban, Asset Freeze on Mubarak". VOA. 28 February 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Egypt's Mubarak gets three years in a graft case". Middle East Star. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014.
- ^ "حمدى السيد: جمال مبارك كان يدبر لانقلاب على أبيه بدعم العادلى – بوابة الشروق". Shorouk News. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ Jeremy M. Sharp, Egypt: Background and U. S. Relations. CRS, 2009. p.43.
- ^ Joseph Telushkin, Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History. HarperCollins, 2014. p. 209.
- ^ Council of Arab States (1 October 2005). "The Arab Peace Initiative, 2002". Al-bab. Archived from the original on 4 June 2009.
- ^ "Arab summit adopts Saudi peace initiative". CNN. 28 March 2002. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ "World divided over Mideast conflict", Al Jazeera, 15 July 2006 Archived 24 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Isabel Kershner (25 June 2008). "Rockets hit Israel, breaking Hamas truce". International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 7 July 2008. Retrieved 16 August 2009.
- ^ Hamas offering Israel truce, not peace. USA Today. 12 March 2008.
- ^ a b c Bronner, Ethan (19 December 2008). "Gaza Truce May Be Revived by Necessity". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2009.
- ^ Press Conference on Gaza humanitarian situation UN. 2009.
- ^ Truce barely eases Gaza embargo. Aleem Maqbool. BBC News. 19 August 2008.
- ^ Rory McCarthy. (5 November 2008). [1] The Guardian.
- ^ "Mubarak blocks resistance Cairo conference". Socialist Worker (Britain). 12 May 2009. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
- ^ Kevin Connolly (16 May 2009). "Egypt unrest: Hosni Mubarak vows to quit after polls". BBC. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Factbox—World reaction to Egypt's Mubarak quitting in September". Reuters. 3 February 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ Wyre Davies (3 February 2011). "Egypt unrest: PM apologises for Tahrir Square violence". BBC News. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- ^ Paul Adams (10 February 2011). "Egypt protests: Hosni Mubarak to make TV address". BBC. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ a b c 'Egyptians celebrate a moment in history Archived 25 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ a b BBC on Mubarak. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ "Defiant Mubarak vows to finish term". Al Jazeera. 1 February 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ 'President Obama hails Mubarak's Resignation, Cites 'Moral Force of Non-Violence: Uncensored News Archived 27 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ "Workers at Mubarak's palace plan 'Friday of Apology' Mubarak given up, wants to die in Sharm" 15 February 2011, Al Arabiya News
- ^ "Ex-Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak near death" 15 February 2011, Daily News (New York)
- ^ "General Prosecution: Mubarak and his family are not out of Egypt" 4 March 2011, Egyptian State Information Service
- ^ "Egypt army reconsiders cases of jailed protesters". Yahoo. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ "Ailing Mubarak wheeled into courtroom cage for trial". CNN. 3 August 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ "Egypt paper publishes 'Mubarak interview'". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Hennessy-Fiske, Molly; Hassan, Amro (29 May 2011). "Mubarak, other former Egypt officials fined $91 million for blocking cellphones, Internet". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak fined for mobile, Internet cut". The Egyptian Gazette. 28 May 2011. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
- ^ Mubarak and sons to stand trial in August Al Jazeera. Retrieved 1 June 2011
- ^ Afify, Heba; Fahim, Kareem (31 July 2011). "Judge Says TV Will Show Mubarak on Trial". The New York Times. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
- ^ Hill, Evan (15 August 2011). "Mubarak trial reined in at second hearing". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
Lawyers were forced to take their seats and submit their requests in writing, and Rifaat adjourned the case until 5 September, after issuing a terse series of 10 decisions on how the trial would proceed.
- ^ "Egypt's Hosni Mubarak Trial: Defense Concludes, Argues Ousted Leader Still President". HuffPost. Associated Press. 21 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ "Mubarak jailed for protest deaths". BBC. 2 June 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, Patrick D. (2 June 2012). "New Turmoil in Egypt Greets Mixed Verdict for Mubarak". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak's sentence greeted with initial euphoria, then anger". The Guardian. 2 June 2012.
- ^ a b "Live updates: Thousands take to Egypt street protesting 'political' ruling in Mubarak case". Ahram online. 2 June 2012. Archived from the original on 5 June 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's Mubarak to get retrial". 3 News NZ. 14 January 2013. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013.
- ^ "Ousted Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak's retrial starts". BBC News. 11 May 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
- ^ "Egyptian Court Orders Mubarak's Release"' ABC News
- ^ "Egypt to place Mubarak under house arrest". The Times of Israel. 22 August 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak: Egypt court drops murder charges over 2011 killings". BBC News. 29 November 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
- ^ "Egypt: Ex-ruler Hosni Mubarak, accused in deaths of hundreds, cleared of charges". CNN. 29 November 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
- ^ Egypt's high court overturns last conviction against Mubarak. Reuters. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak and Sons Sentenced to 3 Years in Prison, Likely to Go Free". NBC News. Reuters. 9 May 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
- ^ a b Rohan, Brian (9 May 2015). "Egyptian court sentences former president Hosni Mubarak and sons to three years in prison for corruption". National Post. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
- ^ Malsin, Jared (9 May 2015). "Egypt: Hosni Mubarak sentenced to three years in prison". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
- ^ "In rare interview, Mubarak says Egyptians want Sisi". Al Arabiya. 6 February 2014.
- ^ "Mubarak supports Sisi, slams Sabbahi in phone interview". Cairo Post. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ "Report: Mubarak has fallen ill". The Jerusalem Post. 7 July 2010. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
- ^ Evan Hill (21 November 2010). "The Muslim Brotherhood in flux – In Depth". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ "Report: Egypt's Mubarak dying of cancer". United Press International. 19 July 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Norman, Joshua (13 February 2011). "Mubarak Mystery: In Egypt, in Germany, in Coma?". CBS. Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
- ^ Nahmias, Roee (15 February 2011). "Mubarak ailing, wants to die in Egypt". Ynetnews. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
- ^ "Ex-Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak near death: reports; protests flare up in Bahrain, Yemen". Daily News. New York. 15 February 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ "Former Egyptian President Mubarak hospitalized". CNN. 13 April 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Hosni Mubarak Has Cancer". The Telegraph. London. 21 June 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak falls into coma after final speech: report". Al Arabiya. 13 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2001.
- ^ News Desk (26 July 2011). "Egypt's ousted president Hosni Mubarak is reportedly depressed and refusing solid food". Global Post. Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak 'has a heart attack' while taken to prison". The Daily Telegraph. 2 June 2012. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Mubarak has heart attack on way to jail". AP via News24. 2 June 2012. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Doctors twice use defibrillator on Egypt's Mubarak". CTV Montreal. 11 June 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012.[dead link]
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak 'defibrillated after heart stops'". Daily Telegraphl. 11 June 2012. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
- ^ "Conflicting reports about whether Mubarak has died". CNN. 19 June 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
- ^ Hosni Mubarak asks to vote in Egypt's constitutional referendum. The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
- ^ a b "Hosni Mubarak breaks leg in jail". The Guardian. 19 June 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ "Former Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak dies". BBC News. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ a b "In Pictures: Egypt holds funeral for Hosni Mubarak". Al Jazeera. 26 February 2020.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak's grandson, 12, dies suddenly". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
- ^ Dickey, Christopher (13 February 2011). "The Tragedy of Hosni Mubarak". Newsweek. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
- ^ Lily Kuo (4 April 2016). "Africa loses more money to illicit financial flows than it receives in foreign aid". Quartz. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016.
- ^ "Personality Spotlight;NEWLN:Hosni Mubarak: Egyptian president". UPI. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f "Egyptian Air Force – Air Marshal Mohammed Hosni Mubarak". Archived from the original on 23 December 2008.
- ^ "Indian Council for Cultural Relations, Universe of Culture, Promoting Indian Culture, Showcasing World Cultures". Iccrindia. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013.
- ^ BOE, Spanish Official Journal A-1985-19855 (In Spanish)
- ISBN 91-630-6744-7
- ^ "Dostluk İlişkilerine Katkının Altın Sembolü: Devlet ve Cumhuriyet Nişanları (Turkish) – The Gold Symbol Contribution of Friendly Relations : State and Republic Orders". Haberler.com. February 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ "Špiljak - Mubarak u srdačnoj atmosferi". Slobodna Dalmacija (12083): 1. 27 February 1984.
Further reading
- Amin, Galal. Egypt in the Era of Hosni Mubarak (American University in Cairo Press, 2011), a major scholarly overview
- Anagondahalli, Deepa. "Prior reputation and the transition from image repair to image makeover: The case of Hosni Mubarak." Public relations review 39.3 (2013): 241-244.
- Arafat, Alaa Al-Din. Hosni Mubarak and the future of democracy in Egypt (Springer, 2011).
- Beinin, Joel. "Workers and Egypt's January 25 Revolution." International Labor and Working-Class History 80.1 (2011): 189-196.
- Brownlee, Jason. "Democratization in the Arab World? The Decline of Pluralism in Mubarak's Egypt." Journal of democracy 13.4 (2002): 6-14. online.
- Cook, Steven A. The Struggle for Egypt: From Nasser to Tahrir Square (Oxford UP, 2011)
- Darraj, Susan Muaddi, and Vicki Cox. Hosni Mubarak (Infobase Publishing, 2007).
- Heiss, Andrew. "The failed management of a dying regime: Hosni Mubarak, Egypt's National Democratic Party, and the January 25 revolution." Journal of Third World Studies 29.1 (2012): 155-171. online
- Joya, Angela. The Roots of Revolt: A Political Economy of Egypt from Nasser to Mubarak (Cambridge University Press, 2020).
- Ketchley, Neil. Egypt in a Time of Revolution: Contentious Politics and the Arab Spring (Cambridge UP, 2017)
- Masoud, Tarek. "The upheavals in Egypt and Tunisia: The road to (and from) Liberation Square." Journal of Democracy 22.3 (2011): 20-34. excerpt
- Osman, Tarek. Egypt on the brink: from the rise of Nasser to the fall of Mubarak (Yale University Press, 2011)
- Piazza, Bárbara Azaola. "The foreign policy of post-Mubarak Egypt and the strengthening of relations with Saudi Arabia: balancing between economic vulnerability and regional and regime security." Journal of North African Studies 24.3 (2019): 401-425. online[dead link]
- Roccu, Roberto. The political economy of the Egyptian revolution: Mubarak, economic reforms and failed hegemony (Springer, 2013).
- Rougier, Bernard, and Stéphane Lacroix (eds.) Egypt’s Revolutions: Politics, Religion, and Social Movements (Palgrave, 2016)
- Shama, Nael. Egyptian foreign policy from Mubarak to Morsi: Against the national interest (Routledge, 2013).
- Sharp, Jeremy M. Egypt: The January 25 Revolution and implications for US foreign policy (Diane Publishing, 2011).
- Soliman, Samer. The Autumn of Dictatorship: Fiscal Crisis and Political Change in Egypt under Mubarak (Stanford University Press, 2011)
- Springborg, Robert. Mubarak’s Egypt: Fragmentation of the Political Order (Routledge, 2019)
- Tripp, Charles, and Roger Owen, eds. Egypt under Mubarak (Routledge, 1989).
External links
- President Mubarak at the Wayback Machine (archived 7 January 2007) at the official Egyptian government site
- Air Marshal Hosni Mubarak at the official Egyptian Air Force site
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Hosni Mubarak on Charlie Rose
- Hosni Mubarak at IMDb
- Hosni Mubarak collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
- Hosni Mubarak collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Hosni Mubarak collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Hosni Mubarak: The Last Pharaoh Archived 5 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine, slideshow by Life magazine
- European Parliament Resolution on Egypt's Human Rights Situation, 16 January 2008