Housing in Scotland
Housing in Scotland includes all forms of built habitation in what is now
After the First World War, the government responded to urban deprivation with a massive programme of council house building. Many were on greenfield sites of semi-detached homes or terraced cottages. In the 1930s, schemes tended to be more cheaply built, but a survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland's houses were still inadequate. There was also extensive private building of sub-urban "bungalow belts", particularly around Edinburgh. From the mid-twentieth century, public architecture became more utilitarian, as part of the impulse to produce a comprehensive welfare state and the influence of modernism. As the post-war desire for urban regeneration gained momentum it would focus on the tower block.
Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like
Prehistory
Stone Age
The oldest house for which there is evidence in Scotland is the oval structure of wooden posts found at
Bronze Age
As bronze working developed from about 2000 BCE, there was a decline in the building of large new structures, which, with a reduction of the total area under cultivation, suggests a fall in population.
Iron Age
In the early Iron Age, from the seventh century BCE, cellular houses begin to be replaced on the northern isles by simple
Middle Ages
Rural houses
Very few rural houses have survived from the Medieval era in Scotland.[23] As in England, cruck construction was used, employing pairs of curved timbers to support the roof, however, unlike in England, they were usually hidden from view.[24] The major timbers often belonged to the local laird and were known as "master's wood" or "master's timbers" and were often reused. The responsibility for infilling the walls usually belonged to the tenants.[23] There was extensive use of turf to fill in the walls, sometimes on a stone base, but they were not long lasting and had to be rebuilt perhaps as often as every two or three years. In some regions, including the south-west and around Dundee, solid clay walls were used, or combinations of clay, turf and straw, rendered with clay or lime to make them weatherproof.[24] With a lack of long span structural timber, the most common building material was stone, employed in both mortared and dry stone construction. Different regions used broom, heather, straw, turfs or reeds for roofing.[25] Central to most houses was the hearth. The simplest were in the centre of the floor, with smoke exiting through a hole in the roof and this form tended to be used longer in the Highlands. More developed forms had a backstone of a single flagstone or walling. There is evidence of Lowland houses with canopies for smoke extraction.[23]
Burghs
From the twelfth century, burghs, towns that were granted certain legal privileges from the crown, developed, particularly on the east coast. They were typically surrounded by a palisade or had a castle and usually had a market place, with a widened high street or junction, often marked by a mercat cross, beside houses for the nobles, burgesses and other significant inhabitants,[26] which were often built in a relatively elaborate style and by the end of the period some would have slate roofs or tiles.[27] Very little has survived of the houses of the urban poor. They were probably largely located in the backlands, away from the main street frontages. From Aberdeen and Perth there is evidence of nearly forty buildings dating from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries, with walls of planks or wattles.[28]
Early modern
Rural settlement
Most of the early modern population, in both the Lowlands and Highlands, was housed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings.
Urban settlement
By the sixteenth century perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of the many burghs.
Improvement and Industrial Revolution
Agricultural improvement
In the eighteenth century there was a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. The Society of Improvers was founded in 1723, including in its 300 members dukes, earls, lairds and landlords.
Urban growth
The
With industrialisation Glasgow became the "second city of the Empire",[43] growing from a population of 77,385 in 1801 to 274,324 by 1841.[44] Between 1780 and 1830 three middle class "new towns" were laid out on gridiron plans, similar to those in Edinburgh, to the south and west of the old town.[45] The other side of increasing wealth and planned architecture for the aristocracy and middle classes was the growth of urban sprawl. In Glasgow, the growing workforce was left to the mercy of market forces as sub-urban tenements were thrown up, particularly to the east of the city,[45] like those of the Gorbals to the south, where overcrowding, lack of sanitation and general poverty contributed to disease, crime, and very low life expediency.[46]
Urban centres increasing made use of locally mined stone. While Edinburgh made extensive use of yellow sandstone, the commercial centre and tenements of Glasgow were built in distinctive red sandstone.[47] After a major fire in the largely wooden Aberdeen in the 1740s, the city fathers decreed that major buildings should be in the locally abundant granite, beginning a new phase in large-scale mining and leading to the "granite city", becoming a centre of a major industry in the nineteenth century, which supplied Scotland and England with faced stone, pavement slabs and pillars.[48]
New towns
The sometimes
Scotland also produced one of the major figures in urban planning in sociologist Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), who developed the concept of conurbation, and discarded the idea of "sweeping clearances" to remove existing housing and the imposition of the gridiron plan, in favour of "conservative surgery": retaining the best buildings in an area and removing the worst. He put this into practice, purchasing and improving slum tenements in James Court, and in new developments at Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh.[52]
Twentieth century
Council housing and slum clearance
In the twentieth century the distinctive Scottish use of stone architecture declined as it was replaced by cheaper alternatives such as
In the 1930s, schemes tended to be more cheaply built, like Blackhill, Glasgow, with a thousand houses built as two and three storey tenements. These building schemes were designed to rehouse those displaced by urban slum clearance, by which thousands of tenements were demolished. However, often crammed into poor land near railways or gasworks, they soon became notorious. A survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland's houses were still inadequate.[54] Residents tended to prefer low-rise solutions to rehousing and there was extensive private building of sub-urban "bungalow belts", particularly around Edinburgh,[56] laid out with squares and crescents. They helped make the fortunes of builders including Miller Homes, Ford and Torrie and Mactaggart and Mickel.[57]
Post-war planning
From the mid-twentieth century, public architecture became more utilitarian, as part of the impulse to produce a comprehensive
Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like
Private building and urban renewal
The drive to use housing to transform and reorder society subsided in the 1970s.
There have been increasing attempts to preserve much of what survives from Scotland's architectural heritage, including the great buildings and monuments, and the classically influenced houses of towns such as Edinburgh and Glasgow.[47] There have also been attempts at preserving the surviving Glasgow tenements, many of which have been renovated, restored to their original pink and honeyed sandstone from the black fronts created by pollution[66] and brought up to modern standards of accommodation.[67] Urban regeneration has also been attempted in areas of post-industrial decline, such as the Merchant City in Glasgow, which was returned to housing from the 1980s, with warehouse loft conversions[68] and more recently the waterfront in Edinburgh, resulting in a return of resident populations to major urban centres.[69]
Modern households
In 2011, there were estimated to be 2.37 million households in Scotland.[71] Of these approximately 1.5 million (62.5 per cent) were owner-occupied homes, 319,000 (12.7 per cent) homes rented from local authorities, 305,000 (11.5 per cent) privately rented homes, and 277,000 (11.5 per cent) homes rented from housing associations.[70] The total number had increased by around 173,000 (7.9 per cent) over the previous ten years, with the rate of increase having slowed substantially since the start of the economic downturn in 2007. The rate of growth in households was affected by falls in new housing supply (which includes new builds, refurbishments and conversions). This fell in each year from 2008–09 to 2010–11, from around 27,600 units in 2007–08 to 17,100 units in 2010–11. The number of households increased after 2010 in every local authority except Clackmannanshire, Inverclyde and West Dunbartonshire. The area with the greatest increase since 2001 in percentage terms was Aberdeenshire with an additional 13,800 households (15.2 per cent). Edinburgh City saw the largest absolute increase of 17,000 households (8.3 per cent). Overall 2.8 per cent of dwellings are vacant and 1.5 per cent are second homes, with the largest proportions in rural areas.[71]
The average household size has decreased, with more people living alone or in smaller households. Between 2005 and 2010, the number of households containing just one adult increased by five per cent and the number of two adult households increased by eight per cent, while the number of households containing one adult fell by 11 per cent and the number of households containing two or more adults with children fell by three per cent. The number of households containing three or more adults increased by 11 per cent. These changes in household composition contributed to a four per cent increase in the number of households in Scotland between 2005 and 2010, which was higher than the increase in the population over this time (2.5 per cent).[71]
Since the establishment of a separate Scottish Parliament and devolved government in 1999, there has been a response to homelessness in Scotland that has been distinctive from the rest of the UK, described as a "rights-based approach". The 2001 Housing (Scotland) Act required local authorities to house homeless people while claims of priority need were investigated. Even if applicants were found not to be in priority need, councils were required to provide accommodation for a reasonable period. The 2003 Homelessness (Scotland) Act went further in phasing out the distinction between priority and non-priority need, so that by 2012 all people unintentionally homeless would be entitled to a permanent home. Partly as a result of these changing definitions, the number of applications for assistance assessed as in priority need increased from 20,000 in 2000–01 to 34,940 in 2008–09. The number of households in temporary accommodation also increased in from 4,600 in 2002 to 10,815 by 2010. Some local authorities expressed concerns that they would be unable to meet expanding demand from existing permanent accommodation.[72] From 2012 to 2013 the number of people seeking help for homelessness fell by 11 per cent to 9,474. The number of people made homeless or threatened with homelessness fell by a tenth to 7,649. The number of people in temporary accommodation was about 6 per cent lower than the peak period in early 2011 when temporary placements were in excess of 12,000. The 2,821 households with children in temporary accommodation was a decrease of 472 households (14 per cent) from the previous year. These households contained a total of 4,574 children, a decrease of 727 children (14 per cent).[73]
See also
- Housing in Glasgow
- Rent control in Scotland
- Short assured tenancy (Scotland)
- Scottish Housing News
- Affordable housing by country
References
Notes
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- ^ ISBN 1-904320-02-3, p. 19.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-00-712693-4, pp. 98–104 and 246–50.
- ISBN 0748623388, p. 45.
- ^ Noble, Neolithic Scotland, p. 17.
- ^ Moffat, Before Scotland, pp. 109–13.
- ^ Moffat, Before Scotland, p. 154.
- ISBN 0415347793, p. 60.
- ISBN 0-7524-1932-3, p. 28.
- ISBN 0-7524-3151-X.
- ^ ISBN 0415347793, p. 340.
- ^ Moffat, Before Scotland, p. 182.
- ISBN 0415301505, p. 190.
- ^ ISBN 0415347793, p. 325.
- ^ Armit, Towers in the North, p. 55.
- ^ Armit, Towers in the North, p. 16.
- ISBN 0-7524-2517-X, p. 218.
- ISBN 0415347793, p. 323.
- ISBN 0-7134-8000-9, p. 81.
- ^ ISBN 0-7864-5918-2, pp. 25 and 31.
- ISBN 1-84603-686-0, p. 12.
- ^ ISBN 0199693056, pp. 321–3.
- ^ ISBN 0575071222, pp. 235–40.
- ^ ISBN 0-7486-1965-8, pp. 55–6.
- ISBN 0-7509-2977-4, pp. 136–40.
- ISBN 1780570066.
- ISBN 0521801559, p. 386.
- ISBN 0415029929, p. 5.
- ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 41–55.
- ^ Whyte and Whyte, The Changing Scottish Landscape, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Whyte and Whyte, The Changing Scottish Landscape, p. 35.
- ISBN 0521473853, pp. 8–10.
- ISBN 0-7486-0233-X, pp. 99–100.
- ^ ISBN 0199693056, pp. 323–4.
- ISBN 0-85263-748-9, pp. 75–6.
- ^ ISBN 0140136495, pp. 288–91.
- ISBN 0-19-822281-5, p. 85.
- ISBN 1860113400, p. 24.
- ISBN 0947782583, p. 229.
- ^ "Old and New Towns of Edinburgh – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. 2008-11-20. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
- ^ Maxwell, "A History of Scotland’s Masonry Construction", p. 27.
- ISBN 0-7190-6497-X, pp. 215–23.
- ISBN 0520208838, p. 18.
- ^ ISBN 0710211171, pp. 19–20.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-06601-8, pp. 203–4.
- ^ ISBN 1-904320-02-3, p. 5.
- ISBN 0191613975.
- ISBN 0-7486-2027-3, p. 164.
- ISBN 0856641928, p. 200.
- ISBN 0-415-47513-9, p. 55.
- ISBN 0-415-10393-2, pp. 54–5, 133 and 135.
- ^ Maxwell, "A History of Scotland’s Masonry Construction", p. 29.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-917063-0, pp. 70–1.
- ^ ISBN 0748640193, p. 143.
- ^ ISBN 0199693056, pp. 325–6.
- ISBN 0748608397, pp. 142–3.
- ^ ISBN 0-7486-2027-3, p. 173.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-0849-2, pp. 450 and 451.
- ^ R. Johnston and A. Mcivor, Lethal Work: A History of the Asbestos Tragedy in Scotland (East Linton, Tuckwell Press, 2000), pp. 103–4.
- ^ Glendinning, MacInnes and MacKechnie, A History of Scottish Architecture, p. 457.
- ISBN 0-415-47513-9, p. 117.
- ^ Glendinning, MacInnes and MacKechnie, A History of Scottish Architecture, p. 453.
- ^ ISBN 075068254X, p. 321.
- ^ Colquhoun, The Riba Book of British Housing Design, p. 319.
- ISBN 0748602321, p. 112.
- ISBN 0575071222, pp. 234–5.
- ISBN 0419183108, pp. 175–92.
- ISBN 1412934915, pp. 149–51.
- ^ a b National housing statistics Archived 2014-02-28 at the Wayback Machine "National housing statistics", Shelter Scotland, retrieved 23 February 2014.
- ^ a b c General Register Office of Scotland, Estimates of Households and Dwellings in Scotland, 2011 Archived 2013-11-16 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 23 February 2014.
- ISBN 184742631X, p. 174.
- ^ "Fall in Scottish homelessness applications", BBC Scotland News, 19 November 2013, retrieved 23 February 2014.
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