Hoysala literature
Hoysala literature is the large body of literature in the
Writing Kannada literature in native
Kannada writings
Overview
Beginning with the 12th century, important socio-political changes took place in the
Noted Kannada poets and writers in Hoysala Empire (1100-1343 CE) | |
Nagachandra | 1105 |
Kanti | 1108 |
Rajaditya | 12th. c |
Harihara | 1160–1200 |
Udayaditya | 1150 |
Vritta Vilasa | 1160 |
Kereya Padmarasa | 1165 |
Nemichandra | 1170 |
Sumanobana | 1175 |
Rudrabhatta | 1180 |
Aggala | 1189 |
Palkuriki Somanatha | 1195 |
Sujanottamsa(Boppana) | 1180 |
Kavi Kama | 12th c. |
Devakavi | 1200 |
Raghavanka | 1200–1225 |
Bhanduvarma | 1200 |
Balachandra Kavi | 1204 |
Parsva Pandita | 1205 |
Maghanandycharya | 1209 |
Janna | 1209–1230 |
Puligere Somanatha | 13th c. |
Hastimalla | 13th c. |
Chandrama | 13th c. |
Somaraja | 1222 |
Gunavarma II | 1235 |
Polalvadandanatha | 1224 |
Andayya | 1217–1235 |
Sisumayana | 1232 |
Mallikarjuna | 1245 |
Naraharitirtha
|
1281 |
Kumara Padmarasa | 13th c. |
Mahabala Kavi | 1254 |
Kesiraja | 1260 |
Kumudendu | 1275 |
Nachiraja | 1300 |
Ratta Kavi | 1300 |
Nagaraja | 1331 |
Noted Kannada poets and writers in the Seuna Yadava Kingdom | |
Kamalabhava | 1180 |
Achanna | 1198 |
Amugideva | 1220 |
Chaundarasa | 1300 |
As in earlier centuries, Jain authors wrote about
The exact beginnings of the
Important contributions were made by some prominent literary families. One Jain family produced several authors, including Mallikarjuna, the noted anthologist (1245); his brother-in-law Janna (1209), the court poet of King
The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong, and this is seen even in their
Writers bilingual in Kannada and
Information from contemporary records regarding several writers from this period whose works are considered lost include: Maghanandi (probable author of Rama Kathe and guru of Kamalabhava of 1235), Srutakirti (guru of Aggala, and author of Raghava Pandaviya and possibly a Jina-stuti, 1170), Sambha Varma (mentioned by Nagavarma of 1145),[48] Vira Nandi (Chandraprabha Kavyamala, 1175),[49] Dharani Pandita (Bijjala raya Charita and Varangana Charita),[50] Amrita Nandi (Dhanvantari Nighantu), Vidyanatha (Prataparudriya), Ganeshvara (Sahitya Sanjivana),[51] Harabhakta, a Veerashaiva mendicant (Vedabhashya, 1300), and Siva Kavi (author of Basava Purana in 1330).[52]
Jain epics
During the early 12th-century ascendancy of the Hoysalas, the kings of the dynasty entertained imperial ambitions.
Nagachandra, a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya (a Jain temple in honour of the 19th Jain
Kanti (1108), known for her wit and humour, was one of the earliest female poets of the Kannada language and a contemporary of Nagachandra, with whom she indulged in debates and repartees.
Age of Harihara
Famous among Vaishnava writers and the first brahmin writer (of the
Nemichandra, court poet of King Veera Ballala II and the Silhara King Lakshmana of
Palkuriki Somanatha, a native of modern Karnataka or Andhra Pradesh, is considered one of the foremost multi-lingual Shaiva (or Shiva-following) poets of the 12th and 13th centuries. Historians are divided about the time and place of his birth and death and his original faith. He was adept in the Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada languages. He was a devotee of Basavanna (the founder of the Veerashaiva movement), and all his writings propagate that faith.[74] It is generally accepted that he was born a brahmin and later adopted the Shaiva faith, although according to the scholar Bandaru Tammayya he was born a Jangama (follower of the Shaiva faith).[74] His time of birth has been identified as either the 12th century[75] or late 13th century.[76] In Kannada, his most important writings are Silasampadane, Sahasragananama and Pancharatna. His well-known poems, written in the ragale metre, are Basava ragale, Basavadhya ragale and Sadguru ragale. He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates.[74][77]
Other well-known personalities from the 12th century included several Jain writers. These include Aggala, who authored Chandraprabhapurana (1189),
Jain–Veerashaiva conflict
Harihara's nephew and protégé, the dramatic poet
In 1209, the Jain scholar, minister, builder of temples and army commander
Mallikarjuna, a Jain ascetic, compiled an anthology of poems called Suktisudharnava ("Gems from the poets") in 1245 in the court of King Vira Someshwara.[93] Some interesting observations have been made by scholars about this important undertaking. While the anthology itself provides insight into poetic tastes of that period (and hence qualifies as a "history of Kannada literature"), it also performs the function of a "guide for poets", an assertive method of bridging the gap between courtly literary intelligentsia and folk poetry.[94] Being a guide for "professional intellectuals", the work, true to its nature, often includes poems eulogising kings and royalty but completely ignoring poems of the 12th-century vachana canon (Veerashaiva folk literature).[37] However, the selection of poems includes contributions from Harihara, the non-conformist Veerashaiva writer. This suggests a compromise by which the author attempts to include the "rebels".[37]
Other notable writers of the early 13th century were Bhanduvarma, author of Harivamsabhyudaya and Jiva sambhodana (1200), the latter bearing on morals and renunciation, and written addressing the soul;
Consolidation of grammar
A major development of this period that would have a profound impact on Kannada literature even into the modern age was the birth of the
Other writers worthy of mention are Mahabala Kavi, the author of Neminathapurana (1254), an account of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha,
Sanskrit writings
The Vaishnava movement in the Kannada-speaking regions found momentum after the arrival of the philosopher
Born as Vasudeva in
Madhvacharya taught complete devotion to the Hindu god Vishnu, emphasising Jnanamarga or the "path of knowledge", and insisted that the path of devotion "can help a soul to attain elevation" (Athmonathi). He was however willing to accept devotion to other Hindu deities as well.
The writings of Madhvacharya and Vidyatirtha (author of Rudraprshnabhashya) may have been absorbed by Sayanacharya, brother of
Literature after the Hoysalas
Literary developments during the Hoysala period had a marked influence on Kannada literature in the centuries to follow. These developments popularised folk metres which shifted the emphasis towards desi (native or folk) forms of literature.
Though the Vaishnava courtly writings in Kannada began with the Hoysala poet Rudrabhatta and the devotional song genre was initiated by Naraharitirtha, the Vaishnava movement began to exert a strong influence on Kannada literature only from the 15th century on. The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other: the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty, and the Bhakti (devotion) writers (also known as haridasas) who played no role in courtly matters. The Bhakti writers took the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres such as the kirthane (a musical composition with refrain, based on tune and rhythm), the suladi (a composition based on rhythm) and the ugabhoga (a composition based on melody). Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well known among the Brahmin commentators, while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most notable of the Bhakti writers.[122][123] The philosophy of Madhvacharya, which originated in the Kannada-speaking region in the 13th century, spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries. The itinerant haridasas, best described as mystic saint-poets, spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada, winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana (enlightenment), bhakti (devotion) and vairagya (detachment).[124][125]
Vachana poetry, developed in reaction to the rigid caste-based Hindu society, attained its peak in popularity among the under-privileged during the 12th century. Though these poems did not employ any regular metre or rhyme scheme, they are known to have originated from the earlier tripadi metrical form.[126] The Veerashaivas, who wrote this poetry, had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period (14th century).[127] Court ministers and nobility belonging to the faith, such as Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya, not only wrote literature but also patronised talented writers and poets.[80][128][129] Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries began to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems, originally written on palm leaf manuscripts.[127] Because of the cryptic nature of the poems, the anthologists added commentaries to them, thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance.[130] An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit, bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic (marga or mainstream as opposed to desi or folk) cultural order.[122]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 132
- ^ a b Thapar (2003), p. 368
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 129
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 133–134
- ^ Pollock (2006), pp. 288–289
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 155
- ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp. 164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p. 59
- ^ a b c d e f Sastri (1955), p. 358
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20–21; E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–45; Sastri (1955) p. 364
- ^ Quote:"A purely Karnataka dynasty" (Moraes 1931, p. 10)
- ^ Rice, B. L. (1897), p. 335
- ^ Natives of South Karnataka (Chopra 2003, p. 150 Part–1)
- ^ Keay (2000), p. 251
- ^ From the Marle inscription (Chopra 2003, p. 149, part–1)
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 124
- ^ a b Keay (2000), p. 252
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 19
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 361
- ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366
- ^ Rudrabhatta and Naraharitirtha (Sastri, 1955, p. 364)
- ^ Kavi Kama and Deva (Narasimhacharya 1988, p. 20)
- ^ a b Rajaditya's ganita (mathematics) writings (1190) and Ratta Kavi's Rattasutra on natural phenomena are examples (Sastri 1955, pp. 358–359)
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 164, 203
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 59
- ^ a b c d Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181
- ^ a b c d e f E.P.Rice (1921), p. 45
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 357
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61, 65
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 61
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 359, 362
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 205
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1180
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248
- ^ Belur Keshavadasa in the book Karnataka Bhaktavijaya (Sahitya Akademi 1987, p. 881)
- ^ Sahitya Akademi 1987, p. 881
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20, 62
- ^ a b c d Nagaraj (2003), p. 364
- ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1475–1476
- ^ a b Ayyar (2006), p. 600
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68
- ^ Kamath (2001) p. 143, pp. 114–115
- ^ Masica (1991), pp. 45–46
- ^ Velchuru Narayana Rao in Pollock (2003), pp. 383–384
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 27–28
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182
- ^ Shahitya Akademi (1987), p. 612
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), pp. 377–379
- ^ Rice Lewis (1985), p. xx
- ^ Rice Lewis (1985), p. xxi
- ^ Rice Lewis (1985), p. xxiii
- ^ Rice Lewis (1985), xxiv
- ^ Rice Lewis (1985), xxvi
- ^ Rice Lewis (1985), pp. xxiv–xxv
- ^ Keay 2000, p. 251
- ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p. 133
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 357–358
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 66
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1603
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 36
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1411–1412, p. 1550
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1548
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362
- ^ Narasimhacharya, (1988), p. 20
- ^ Nagara (2003), p. 364
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 551–552
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 179
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 403–404
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 60
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 203
- ^ a b Sastri (1955) p. 364
- ^ a b c d Rice E. P. (1921), p. 43
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620; (1988), p. 1180
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4133
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20
- ^ Seshayya in Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4133
- ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p. 362
- ^ Rice B. L. (1897), p. 499
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 37
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4003
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 207
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4629
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), pp. 43–44
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 204
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 377
- ^ a b c E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–44
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 170
- ^ a b c d e f Sastri (1955), p. 359
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 65
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 366
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 44–45
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 363
- ^ Karnataka State Gazetteer: Belgaum (1973), p.721, Bangalore, Director of Print, Stationery and Publications at the Government Press
- ^ a b Singh (2001), p. 975
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p.761
- ^ Singh (2001), p. 979
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 21
- ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20–21
- ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1476
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–193
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192
- ^ Shiv Prakash (1997), p. 195
- ^ Rice E. P. (1921), p. 45
- ^ Sahitya Academi (1992), p. 4003
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p.112
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 151
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 154
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 150, 155
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 193
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 155–156
- ^ K. T. Pandurangi in Kamath 2001, pp. 132–133
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 310
- ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 316
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 167
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 364
- ^ Sahitya Akademi, (1992), p. 4004
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4392
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 373
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 453–454
- ^ a b Nagaraj (2003), p. 368
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 193–194
- ^ Sharma (1961), p. 514–515
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 192–196
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 169
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 188
- ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 70
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 363
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 761
References
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- Masica, Colin P. (1991) [1991]. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29944-6.
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- Nagaraj, D.R. (2003) [2003]. "Critical Tensions in the History of Kannada Literary Culture". In Sheldon I. Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. Berkeley and London: University of California Press. p. 1066. pp. 323–383. ISBN 0-520-22821-9.
- Rao, Velchuru Narayana (2003) [2003]. "Critical Tensions in the History of Kannada Literary Culture". In Sheldon I. Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. Berkeley and London: University of California Press. p. 1066. p. 383. ISBN 0-520-22821-9.
- Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988]. History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
- ISBN 0-520-24500-8.
- Rice, E. P. (1982) [1921]. Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0063-0.
- Rice, B. L. (2001) [1897]. Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0977-8.
- Sastri, Nilakanta K. A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
- Sharma, B.N.K (2000) [1961]. History of Dvaita school of Vedanta and its Literature (3rd ed.). Bombay: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1575-0.
- Shiva Prakash, H.S. (1997). "Kannada". In Ayyappapanicker (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-0365-0.
- Singh, Narendra (2001). "Classical Kannada Literature and Digambara Jain Iconography". Encyclopaedia of Jainism. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-261-0691-3.
- Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-302989-4.
- Various (1987). Amaresh Datta (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature – vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1803-8.
- Various (1988). Amaresh Datta (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature – vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1194-7.
- Various (1992). Mohan Lal (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature – vol 5. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1221-8.
External links
- "History of Kannada Literature-I". History of Kannada Literature. Retrieved 8 March 2008.
- Rice E. P (1 December 1982). History of Kannada Literature Book by Rice E. P. Asian Educational Services. )