Human–canine bond
Human–canine bonding is the relationship between
The human–canine relationship is not necessarily always a positive one; dogs can be viewed in an extremely negative light depending on the region.[3] On average, females tend to have more positive attitudes toward dogs as opposed to males,[4] and studies have demonstrated that both dogs and humans release oxytocin while spending time together.[5] This release of oxytocin is correlated with the formation of a strong social bond.[5] Canines are capable of distinguishing between positive and negative human facial expressions and will react accordingly.[6][7] Dogs appear in religions all over the world, particularly in Mesoamerican folklore and myth, signifying the deep reverence humans all over the world and throughout history have for them.
Attachment
Psychologists believe that the relationship between human and canine is a bidirectional attachment bond, which resembles that of the typical human caretaker/infant relationship,[8][9] and shows all of the usual hallmarks of a typical bond.[10] Some examples of behaviors that led scientists to this conclusion is the display of proximity seeking behavior where the canine will seek out its caretaker as a means to cope with stress, and consequently the absence of the caretaker will trigger separation anxiety to a varying degree.[11] Another such behavior is the safe haven effect, which describes when the canine more freely explores novel objects in the caretaker's presence.[12] Canines are capable of assessing humans' emotional states, as well as discriminating humans by levels of familiarity.[13][14]
Studies have demonstrated that shelter dogs benefit from interacting with complete strangers.[15] These interactions result in a reduction in plasma cortisol, which is correlated to an overall reduction in stress.[16] These results demonstrate the canines' innate desire to form an attachment with a human, and also demonstrate the positive health effects for the canine associated with the relationship.[17]
Upon loss, due to death or retirement, the majority of caregivers report intense feelings of grief.[18]
Research
Human–canine bonding was recognized by
In the early 1980s the term 'human–animal bond' was officially coined by Leo K. Bustad, who delivered a summary lecture on the Human–Pet Relationship on October 28, 1983, at the International Symposium in Vienna. This symposium was held in honour of Konrad Lorenz, and during his lecture, Bustad praised him for his work on the human–animal bond and encouraged others to build on Lorenz's work on the subject.[21] In the early 1970s, Konrad Lorenz had developed the field of ethology with his landmark research on the imprinting of behaviors in geese.[22]
Bustad and other pet therapy advocates formed the Delta Society, which was built on the earlier work of Levinson and Croson.[20] In the 1970s and 1980s, national and international conferences led to greater recognition of the human–animal bond. Since then, there has been widespread media coverage of animal-assisted activity and therapy programs and service dog training.[21]
Types of relationships
Today dogs are mostly kept as household pets although there still remains a sizeable population of working dogs worldwide. Working dogs today perform a wider variety of jobs than ever before in history, working in fields such as explosive detection, therapy, and invasive species detection.
Pets
In the western world, dogs are most commonly found as household pets.[28] The overwhelming majority of American dog owners report that they feel as if their dog is a member of their family.[29] Many western owners allow their dogs to sleep in their beds with them and report lessened anxiety.[30] In Muslim cultures the dog is regarded as unclean and the general consensus in those countries is that keeping a dog as a pet is impure.[31] Almost universally positive outcomes are reported among those who keep dogs as pets.[32] The human-canine bond is strengthened, or diminished, depending on the quantity and quality of the time spent with the canine and through activities such as routine walking, feeding, grooming, and play.[33][34]
Herding
The cattle dog has long worked alongside humans, with the start of herding activities roughly being around the time of the domestication of the sheep.[35] Today's herding dogs have evolved a unique set of traits and mannerisms that makes them ideal for the job.[36] Herding dogs may generally fall into several categories, these are protectors, drivers, headers, and heelers.[37] Herding dogs rely on many predator skills such as posture and eye contact rather than brute force.[38]
Hunting
Hunting is one of the oldest jobs that dogs have performed alongside humans. Cave art dating back to the Neolithic age depicting dogs and humans hunting together has been found.
Sledding
Dog sledding began as a formal sport in North America in 1908, however the practice of using dogs to pull sleds dates back to at least 6000 BC.[42] Remnants of sleds and harnesses has been found with canine remains in Siberia which carbon-dated to 7800–8000 years ago.[43] A dog musher will need to develop a close bond sometimes with as many as 20 or more dogs in their kennel in order to keep a highly responsive and loyal team. The musher will need to cultivate a particularly strong relationship with their lead dog. The lead dog will ultimately decide which path the team takes.[44]
Military
Canines are employed worldwide in various militaries around the world where they perform a variety of jobs on land, sea, and in the air.[45] In the United States of America the Army Veterinary Corps and the 341st Training Squadron provide the training and logistics for many of the handlers and canines.[46] Lackland AFB has around 900 canines at any given time.[46] The commander of the 341st Training Squadron, William Roberts, states their mission is "to produce a dog that patrols and detects, either narcotics or explosives".[46] In the past, military working dogs in the US were often euthanized after they retired, especially if they were deemed unfit for home life or showed aggressive behaviors. However, today, the military makes every effort to adopt out these dogs to qualified families. Only dogs with serious medical conditions are euthanized.[47][48]
In the UK the 1st Military Working Dog Regiment provides trained dogs and handlers to support the armed forces in various operations, comprising 299 Regular soldiers and officers with the ability to surge to a maximum capacity of 384 Military Working Dogs.[49]
The relationship between a soldier and his dog is often cited as deeply rooted and unshakable, with the result being that the handler and the dog can read almost imperceptible changes in each other's body language.[50] In the US military the military working dog is traditionally one rank higher than his handler so that he is afforded the respect they deserve.[51]
Examples of Military working dogs include:
Search
Because of their highly developed sense of smell many canines today work with their handlers to search for many things including drugs, invasive species, and people. The first search and rescue dogs were the
Dogs and their handlers will have formed a close bond allowing each other to interpret each other's body language correctly leading to the successful detection of the desired object or person.[53][54] Examples of body language to look for when the dog begins to "hit" on a scent cone are small pauses, tail flicks, and puffing air with the nose. Every dog is different and will present different signals that will take lots of dedicated training from the handler to learn how to correctly interpret.[50]
Assistance
People who suffer from isolation, depression, and other mental illness to the point where it significantly interferes with day-to-day life may find security in an emotional support animal, however it is important to remember that usually dogs who fall into the emotional support animal category do not require any specific training.
examples of assistances dogs include:
- Guide dogs
- Hearing dogs
- Mobility assistance dogs
- Medical response dogs
- Seizure response dogs
- Autism assistance dogs
- Psychiatric response dogs
Health benefits
Canines' social impact on humans is especially significant for those who tend to be more isolated, such as children with no siblings[59] or elderly persons. In this view, the animal is part of our community and is an important determinant for psychological well-being.
According to self psychology, an animal can be a "self-object" that gives a sense of cohesion, support, or sustenance to a person's sense of self. Self-psychology explains why some animals are so crucial to a person's sense of self and well-being.[60] Dog companionship often helps people to develop a daily routine and gives them something to look forward to each day.[61] Studies also show owning a dog reduces stress,[62] alleviates anxiety,[63] and even can prolong a human's lifespan.[64]
Abuse
Despite the normally positive relationship, there are instances where dogs have turned on their owner or other humans.[65] There are also instances where a normally positive relationship can result in a human abusing their canine, either psychologically or physically. The reasons for a human or a dog turning on their companion are diverse and poorly understood,[66] but may be generally boiled down to improper socialization or underlying mental health issues for either party.[67]
See also
- Dogs portal
- Dog behavior
- List of individual dogs
- Anthrozoology
- Dogs in religion
- Biophilia hypothesis
- Cat–dog relationship
- Interspecies friendship
- Cultural depictions of dogs
- Origin of the domestic dog
- Pet humanization
- Human interaction with cats
References
- ISSN 0305-4403.
- ^ "Pet Industry Market Size & Ownership Statistics". American Pet Products Association.
- ^ "Why some Muslims will do anything to avoid touching a dog". ABC News. 2019-11-03. Retrieved 2022-06-21.
- OCLC 689993192.
- ^ PMID 31614747.
- PMID 27074009.
- S2CID 12354384.
- PMID 33335230.
- ^ Hedrih, Vladimir (2022-10-27). "People with insecure attachment styles tend to have strong emotional bonds with pets, study finds". PsyPost. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
- ISSN 0168-1591.
- S2CID 144039794.
- PMID 23469283.
- PMID 26763220.
- ISSN 1558-7878.
- PMID 31905973.
- S2CID 20716594.
- PMID 25750549.
- S2CID 23448193.
- ^ Pet-Oriented Child Psychotherapy (1969) and Pets and Human Development (1979)
- ^ a b Catanzaro, T. E. (2003). Section introduction: Human-animal bond and primary prevention. American Behavioral Scientists, 47, 29-30. doi: 10.1177/0002764203255209
- ^ a b Hindes, L. M. (2003). Historical perspectives on the human-animal bond. American Behavioral Scientists, 47(1), 7-15. doi: 10.1177/0002764203255206
- ^ Nitkin, Patricia. "The Human-Animal Bond", B.C. Cancer Agency, University of British Columbia. Retrieved on 2011-06-19.
- ^ "Meet the very good dogs who hunt down invasive species". Popular Science. 2017-11-11. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- S2CID 254131251.
- ^ Lek, Lauren (October 30, 2017). "The Relationship Between a K-9 Handler and Their Dog". Friends of Douglas County K-9 Colorado. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ Bender, Kelli (May 26, 2021). "Military Dog Handlers Reunite with and Adopt Their Former Canine Partners After Pups Retire". PEOPLE.com. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Face of Defense: Marine Adopts, Reunites With Military Working Dog". U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ISBN 9780521760065, retrieved 2022-06-19
- ^ "Sociologist confirms what pet parents know: Pets really are part of the family". phys.org. Southern Methodist University. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ Gibeault, Stephanie (July 24, 2017). "Should I Let My Dog Sleep With Me?". American Kennel Club. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ Mikhail, Alan (27 July 2017). "The moment in history when Muslims began to see dogs as dirty, impure, and evil". Quartz. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ "Human-Animal Bond - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ "9 Ways to Improve your Relationship with your Dog". www.thewildest.com. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ "Training Tips to Strengthen Your Bond With Your Dog". www.petmd.com. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- ^ "herding | National Geographic Society". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Canine Co-Workers: Herding dogs from around the world". Volac - Lamlac. 2021-05-19. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ dsuleman (2013-05-20). "History of the Cattle Dog". American Cowboy | Western Lifestyle - Travel - People. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "The history of the working dog, an 'indispensable' Aussie icon". ABC News. 2019-06-25. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Are These the Oldest Images of Dogs?". History. 2017-11-17. Archived from the original on October 4, 2021. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- hdl:10072/412752.
- ^ a b c d "Hunter's Best Friend: A History of Hunting Dogs". Hunter-ed. 27 August 2015. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Dog Sledding & Dog Sled Making | Learning Center | New Hampshire Folklife". www.nh.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
- JSTOR 40316394.
- OCLC 607204152.
- ^ "Four-Legged Fighters". U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ a b c "Military Working Dogs: Guardians of the Night". www.army.mil. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Military working dogs retire to handlers' homes". www.army.mil. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ Office, U. S. Government Accountability. "Department of Defense: Medical Conditions and Care for End-of-Service Military Working Dogs | U.S. GAO". www.gao.gov. Retrieved 2023-05-04.
- ^ "1st Military Working Dog Regiment". www.army.mod.uk. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ OCLC 730406440.
- ^ "Bond with dog, handler deeper than duty". www.army.mil. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "History of Search Dogs". The National Search And Rescue Dog Association. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ Thornton, Keri (29 August 2019). "Handlers of 'police dogs' explain critical bond with four-legged partners". Tahlequah Daily Press. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "The inseparable bond between K9s and their handlers". WKBW. 2020-02-12. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Everything You Need to Know About Emotional Support Animals", "American Kennel Club", 2017-06-20
- ^ "Dr. Samuel Corson, 88, Dies; Father of Pet-Assisted Therapy", The New York Times, 1998-03-02
- ^ Gibeault, Stephanie (November 28, 2017). "Peanut Detection Dogs Save Lives". American Kennel Club. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Animal Therapy Has Benefits for Patients—and Healthcare Staff", "Ons Voice", 2018-08-12
- PMID 26152446.
- ^ Brown, Sue-Ellen (2011) "Self Psychology and the Human-Animal Bond: An Overview," The Psychology of the Human-Animal Bond, part 2, pp. 137-149.
- ^ "Why Man's Best Friend is Man's Best Friend".
- PMID 11641292.
- PMID 9420370.
- ^ Ingraham, Christopher. "Own a dog and live longer, new research says". The Washington Post.
- ^ "Dog Bite Statistics (How Likely Are You To Get Bit?)". www.caninejournal.com. 14 August 2013. Retrieved 2019-06-26.
- ^ "FBI gathers animal cruelty data, but patterns have yet to emerge". American Veterinary Medical Association. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
- ^ "Animal Abuse Statistics". www.veterinarians.org. 2022-03-30. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
Further reading
- Jon Franklin (1 September 2009). The Wolf in the Parlor: The Eternal Connection Between Humans and Dogs. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-9077-2. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- Child development: Endenburg, Nienke & vanLith, Hein A. (2010). "The influence of animals on the development of children" The Veterinary Journal
- Daly, Beth; Morton, L. L. (2009). "Empathetic Differences in Adults as a Function of Childhood and Adult Pet Ownership and Pet Type". Anthrozoös. 22 (4): 371–382. S2CID 145010365.
- Health; Gillum, Richard F.; Obisesan, Thomas O. (2010). "Living with Companion Animals, Physical Activity and Mortality in a U.S. National Cohort". Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 7 (6): 2452–2459. PMID 20644682.
- Animal-assisted; Animal-assisted; Friesen, Lori (2009). "Exploring Animal-Assisted Programs with Children in School and Therapeutic Contexts". Early Childhood Education Journal. 37 (4): 261–267.