Unethical human experimentation in the United States
Numerous experiments which are performed on human test subjects in the United States are considered unethical, because they are performed without the knowledge or informed consent of the test subjects. Such tests have been performed throughout American history, but some of them are ongoing.[citation needed] The experiments include the exposure of humans to many chemical and biological weapons (including infections with deadly or debilitating diseases), human radiation experiments, injections of toxic and radioactive chemicals, surgical experiments, interrogation and torture experiments, tests which involve mind-altering substances, and a wide variety of other experiments. Many of these tests are performed on children,[1] the sick, and mentally disabled individuals, often under the guise of "medical treatment". In many of the studies, a large portion of the subjects were poor, racial minorities, or prisoners.
Many of these experiments violated US law. Some others were sponsored by government agencies or rogue elements thereof, including the
The ethical, professional, and legal implications of this in the United States medical and scientific community were quite significant, and led to
Surgical experiments
Throughout the 1840s,
In 1874, Mary Rafferty, an Irish servant woman, came to Dr.
When the needle entered the brain substance, she complained of acute pain in the neck. To develop more decided reactions, the strength of the current was increased ... her countenance exhibited great distress, and she began to cry. Very soon, the left hand was extended as if in the act of taking hold of some object in front of her; the arm presently was agitated with
stertorous; she lost consciousness and was violently convulsed on the left side. The convulsion lasted five minutes and was succeeded by a coma. She returned to consciousness in twenty minutes from the beginning of the attack, and complained of some weakness and vertigo.— Dr. Bartholow's research report[6]
In the subsequent autopsy, Bartholow noted that some brain damage had occurred due to the electrodes but that she had died due to the cancer. Bartholow was criticized by fellow physicians and the American Medical Association formally condemned his experiments as he had caused direct harm to the patient, not in an attempt to treat her, but solely to gain knowledge. Additional issues were raised with the consent obtained. Although she gave "cheerful assent" to the procedure, she was described as "feeble-minded" and may not have fully understood. Bartholow apologized for his actions and expressed regret that some knowledge had been gained "at the expense of some injury to the patient."[6]
In 1896, Dr. Arthur Wentworth performed spinal taps on 29 young children, without the knowledge or consent of their parents, at Children's Hospital Boston (now Boston Children's Hospital) in Boston, Massachusetts to discover whether doing so would be harmful.[7]
From 1913 to 1951, Dr.
From 1955 to 1960,
Pathogens, disease and biological warfare agents
Late 19th century
In the 1880s, in Hawaii, a Californian physician working at a hospital for lepers injected six girls under the age of 12 with syphilis.[7]
In 1895, New York City
Early 20th century
In 1908, three Philadelphia researchers infected dozens of children with
In 1909, Frank Crazier Knowles published a study in the
In 1911, Dr.
The
1940s
In 1941, at the
It may save you much trouble if you publish your paper... elsewhere than in the Journal of Experimental Medicine. The Journal is under constant scrutiny by the anti-vivisectionists who would not hesitate to play up the fact that you used for your tests human beings of a state institution. That the tests were wholly justified goes without saying.[21]
Rous closely monitored the articles he published since the 1930s, when revival of the anti-vivisectionist movement raised pressure against certain human experimentation.[22]
In 1941, Dr. William C. Black
The
In a 1946 to 1948
1950s
In 1950, to conduct a simulation of a biological warfare attack, the U.S. Navy sprayed large quantities of the bacteria Serratia marcescens – considered harmless at the time – over the city of San Francisco during a project called Operation Sea-Spray. Numerous citizens contracted pneumonia-like illnesses, and at least one person died as a result.[35][36][37][38][39][40] The family of the person who died sued the government for gross negligence, but a federal judge ruled in favor of the government in 1981.[41] Serratia tests were continued until at least 1969.[42]
Also in 1950, Dr. Joseph Stokes of the University of Pennsylvania deliberately infected 200 female prisoners with viral hepatitis.[43]
From the 1950s to 1972, mentally disabled children at the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York, were intentionally infected with viral hepatitis, for research whose purpose was to help discover a vaccine.[44] From 1963 to 1966, Saul Krugman of New York University promised the parents of mentally disabled children that their children would be enrolled into Willowbrook in exchange for signing a consent form for procedures that he claimed were "vaccinations". In reality, the procedures involved deliberately infecting children with viral hepatitis by feeding them an extract made from the feces of patients infected with the disease.[45][46]
In 1952,
In 1953, Dr.
During the 1950s, the United States conducted a series of field tests using entomological weapons (EW). Operation Big Itch, in 1954, was designed to test munitions loaded with uninfected fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis). In May 1955 over 300,000 uninfected mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) were dropped over parts of the U.S. state of Georgia to determine if the air-dropped mosquitoes could survive to take meals from humans. The mosquito tests were known as Operation Big Buzz. The U.S. engaged in at least two other EW testing programs, Operation Drop Kick and Operation May Day.[48]
1960s
In 1963, 22 elderly patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital in Brooklyn, New York City were injected with live cancer cells by Chester M. Southam, who in 1952 had done the same to prisoners at the Ohio State Prison, to "discover the secret of how healthy bodies fight the invasion of malignant cells". The administration of the hospital attempted to cover the study up, but the New York medical licensing board ultimately placed Southam on probation for one year. Two years later, the American Cancer Society elected him as their vice president.[50]
From 1963 to 1969, as part of
In 1966, the U.S. Army released Bacillus globigii into the tunnels of the New York City Subway system, as part of a field experiment called A Study of the Vulnerability of Subway Passengers in New York City to Covert Attack with Biological Agents.[48][52][53][54][55] The Chicago subway system was also subject to a similar experiment by the Army.[48]
Human radiation experiments
Researchers in the United States have performed thousands of
The experiments included a wide array of studies, such as feeding radioactive food to mentally disabled children or
Much information about these programs was classified and kept secret. In 1986, the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce released a report entitled American Nuclear Guinea Pigs : Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on U.S. Citizens.[57] In the 1990s, Eileen Welsome's reports on radiation testing for The Albuquerque Tribune prompted the creation of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments by executive order of president Bill Clinton to monitor government tests; it published results in 1995. Welsome later wrote a book called The Plutonium Files.
Radioactive iodine experiments
In a 1949 operation called the "
In 1953, the AEC ran several studies at the
In another AEC study, researchers at the
In 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to discover if radioactive iodine affected
In Alaska, starting in August 1955, the AEC selected a total of 102 Inuit natives and Athapascan Indigenous peoples who would be used to study the effects of radioactive iodine on thyroid tissue, particularly in cold environments. Over a two-year span, the test subjects were given doses of I-131 and samples of saliva, urine, blood, and thyroid tissue were collected from them. The purpose and risks of the radioactive iodine dosing, along with the collection of body fluid and tissue samples was not explained to the test subjects, and the AEC did not conduct any follow-up studies to monitor for long-term health effects.[60]
In an experiment in the 1960s, over 100 Alaskan citizens were continually exposed to radioactive iodine.[61]
In 1962, the Hanford site again released I-131, stationing test subjects along its path to record its effect on them. The AEC also recruited Hanford volunteers to ingest milk contaminated with I-131 during this time.[60]
Uranium experiments
It is desired that no document be released which refers to experiments with humans and might have adverse effect on public opinion or result in legal suits. Documents covering such work should be classified 'secret'.
— April 17, 1947 Atomic Energy Commission memo from Colonel O.G. Haywood, Jr. to Dr. Fidler at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee[62]
Between 1946 and 1947, researchers at the
Between 1953 and 1957, at the
Plutonium experiments
From April 10, 1945, to July 18, 1947, eighteen people were injected with plutonium as part of the Manhattan Project.[66] Doses administered ranged from 95 to 5,900 nanocuries.[66]
Three patients at
An eighteen-year-old woman at an upstate New York hospital, expecting to be treated for a pituitary gland disorder, was injected with plutonium.[70]
Experiments involving other radioactive materials
Immediately after World War II, researchers at Vanderbilt University gave 829 pregnant mothers in Tennessee what they were told were "vitamin drinks" that would improve the health of their babies. The mixtures contained radioactive iron and the researchers were determining how fast the radioisotope crossed into the placenta.[71][72] Four of the women's babies died from cancers as a result of the experiments, and the women experienced rashes, bruises, anemia, hair/tooth loss, and cancer.[56]
From 1946 to 1953, at the
The
In the 1950s, researchers at the
Between 1948 and 1954, funded by the federal government, researchers at the Johns Hopkins Hospital inserted radium rods into the noses of 582 Baltimore, Maryland schoolchildren as an alternative to adenoidectomy.[79][80][81] Similar experiments were performed on over 7,000 U.S. Army and Navy personnel during World War II.[79] Nasal radium irradiation became a standard medical treatment and was used in over two and a half million Americans.[79][82]
In another study at the
In 1961 and 1962, ten Utah State Prison inmates had blood samples taken which were mixed with radioactive chemicals and reinjected back into their bodies.[84]
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission funded the
In a 1967 study that was published in the Journal of Clinical Investigation, pregnant women were injected with radioactive
Fallout research
In 1957, atmospheric nuclear explosions in Nevada, which were part of
Early in the
Irradiation experiments
Between 1960 and 1971, the Department of Defense funded non-consensual
From 1960 to 1971,
From 1963 to 1973, a leading
In 1963,
Chemical experiments
Nonconsensual tests
From 1942 to 1944, the U.S.
From 1950 through 1953, the U.S. Army conducted
To test whether or not sulfuric acid, which is used in making molasses, was harmful as a food additive, the Louisiana State Board of Health commissioned a study to feed "Negro prisoners" nothing but molasses for five weeks. One report stated that prisoners did not "object to submitting themselves to the test, because it would not do any good if they did."[14]
A 1953 article in the medical/scientific journal Clinical Science
Operation Top Hat
In June 1953, the
The guidelines, however, left a loophole; they did not define what types of experiments and tests required such approval from the Secretary.
Holmesburg program
From approximately 1951 to 1974, the
Kligman later continued his dioxin studies, increasing the dosage of dioxin which he applied to the skin of 10 prisoners to 7,500 micrograms of dioxin, which is 468 times the dosage that the Dow Chemical official Gerald K. Rowe had authorized him to administer. As a result, the prisoners developed inflammatory
The Holmesburg program paid hundreds of inmates a nominal stipend to test a wide range of cosmetic products and chemical compounds, whose health effects were unknown at the time.[109][110] Upon his arrival at Holmesberg, Kligman is claimed to have said, "All I saw before me were acres of skin ... It was like a farmer seeing a fertile field for the first time."[111] A 1964 issue of Medical News reported that 9 out of 10 prisoners at Holmesburg Prison were medical test subjects.[112]
In 1967, the
Psychological and torture experiments
U.S. government research
The United States government funded and performed numerous psychological experiments, especially during the Cold War era. Many of these experiments were performed to help develop more effective torture and interrogation techniques for the U.S. military and intelligence agencies, and to develop techniques for Americans to resist torture at the hands of enemy nations and organizations.
Truth serum
U.S. interest in developing a
Shortly thereafter, in 1950, the CIA initiated
Drug deaths
In 1952, professional tennis player Harold Blauer died when he was injected with a fatal dose of MDA at the New York State Psychiatric Institute of Columbia University. The United States Department of Defense, which sponsored the injection, worked in collusion with the Department of Justice and the New York State Attorney General to conceal evidence of its involvement in the experiment for 23 years. Cattell claimed that he did not know what the army had ordered him to inject into Blauer, saying: "We didn't know whether it was dog piss or what we were giving him."[125][126]
On November 19, 1953, Dr.
MKUltra
In 1953, the CIA placed several of its interrogation and mind-control programs under the direction of a single program, known by the code name
In a memo describing the purpose of one MKULTRA program subprogram, Richard Helms said:
We intend to investigate the development of a chemical material which causes a reversible, nontoxic aberrant mental state, the specific nature of which can be reasonably well predicted for each individual. This material could potentially aid in discrediting individuals, eliciting information, and implanting suggestions and other forms of mental control.
— Richard Helms, internal CIA memo[129]
In 1954, the CIA's Project QKHILLTOP was created to study Chinese brainwashing techniques, and to develop effective methods of interrogation. Most of the early studies are believed to have been performed by the Cornell University Medical School's human ecology study programs, under the direction of Dr. Harold Wolff.[115][130][131] Wolff requested that the CIA provide him any information they could find regarding "threats, coercion, imprisonment, deprivation, humiliation, torture, 'brainwashing', 'black psychiatry', and hypnosis, or any combination of these, with or without chemical agents." According to Wolff, the research team would then:
...assemble, collate, analyze and assimilate this information and will then undertake experimental investigations designed to develop new techniques of offensive/defensive intelligence use ... Potentially useful secret drugs (and various brain damaging procedures) will be similarly tested to ascertain the fundamental effect upon human brain function and upon the subject's mood ... Where any of the studies involve potential harm of the subject, we expect the Agency to make available suitable subjects and a proper place for the performance of the necessary experiments.
— Dr. Harold Wolff, Cornell University Medical School[131]
... it was fun, fun, fun. Where else could a red-blooded American boy lie, kill, cheat, steal, rape and pillage with the sanction and bidding of the All-highest?
— George Hunter White, who oversaw drug experiments for the CIA as part of Operation Midnight Climax[132]
Another of the MKULTRA subprojects, Operation Midnight Climax, consisted of a web of CIA-run safehouses in San Francisco, Marin, and New York which were established to study the effects of LSD on unconsenting individuals. Prostitutes on the CIA payroll were instructed to lure clients back to the safehouses, where they were surreptitiously plied with a wide range of substances, including LSD, and monitored behind one-way glass. Several significant operational techniques were developed in this theater, including extensive research into sexual blackmail, surveillance technology, and the possible use of mind-altering drugs in field operations.[132]
In 1957, with funding from a CIA front organization,
The frequent screams of the patients that echoed through the hospital did not deter Cameron or most of his associates in their attempts to depattern their subjects completely.
— John D. Marks, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate, Chapter 8[135]
Concerns
The CIA leadership had serious concerns about these activities, as evidenced in a 1957
Precautions must be taken not only to protect operations from exposure to enemy forces but also to conceal these activities from the American public in general. The knowledge that the agency is engaging in unethical and illicit activities would have serious repercussions in political and diplomatic circles ...
— 1957CIA Inspector General Report[136]
In 1963, the CIA had synthesized many of the findings from its psychological research into what became known as the
Shutdown
MKULTRA activities continued until 1973 when CIA director
On April 26, 1976, the Church Committee of the United States Senate issued a report, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operation with Respect to Intelligence Activities,[139] In Book I, Chapter XVII, p. 389, this report states:
LSD was one of the materials tested in the MKULTRA program. The final phase of LSD testing involved surreptitious administration to unwitting non-volunteer subjects in normal life settings by undercover officers of the Bureau of Narcotics acting for the CIA.
A special procedure, designated MKDELTA, was established to govern the use of MKULTRA materials abroad. Such materials were used on a number of occasions. Because MKULTRA records were destroyed, it is impossible to reconstruct the operational use of MKULTRA materials by the CIA overseas; it has been determined that the use of these materials abroad began in 1953, and possibly as early as 1950.
Drugs were used primarily as an aid to interrogations, but MKULTRA/MKDELTA materials were also used for harassment, discrediting, or disabling purposes.[118][140][141][142][143]
Experiments on patients with mental illness
Dr.
Various experiments were performed on people with schizophrenia who were stable, other experiments were performed on people with their first episode of psychosis. They were given methylphenidate to see the effect on their minds.[147][148][149][150][151][152]
Torture experiments
From 1964 to 1968, the U.S. Army paid $386,486 to professors Albert Kligman and Herbert W. Copelan to perform experiments with mind-altering drugs on 320 inmates of Holmesburg Prison. The goal of the study was to determine the minimum effective dose of each drug needed to disable 50 percent of any given population. Kligman and Copelan initially claimed that they were unaware of any long-term health effects the drugs could have on prisoners; however, documents later revealed that this was not the case.[108]
Medical professionals gathered and collected data on the CIA's use of torture techniques on detainees during the 21st century war on terror, to refine those techniques, and "to provide legal cover for torture, as well as to help justify and shape future procedures and policies", according to a 2010 report by Physicians for Human Rights. The report stated that: "Research and medical experimentation on detainees was used to measure the effects of large-volume waterboarding and adjust the procedure according to the results." As a result of the waterboarding experiments, doctors recommended adding saline to the water "to prevent putting detainees in a coma or killing them through over-ingestion of large amounts of plain water." Sleep deprivation tests were performed on over a dozen prisoners, in 48-, 96- and 180-hour increments. Doctors also collected data intended to help them judge the emotional and physical effects of the techniques so as to "calibrate the level of pain experienced by detainees during interrogation" and to determine if using certain types of techniques would increase a subject's "susceptibility to severe pain". In 2010, the CIA denied the allegations, claiming they never performed any experiments, and saying "The report is just wrong"; however, the U.S. government never investigated the claims.[153][154][155][156][157] Psychologists James Mitchell and Bruce Jessen ran a company that was paid $81 million by the CIA, that, according to the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, developed the "enhanced interrogation techniques" used.[158] In November 2014, the American Psychological Association announced that they would hire a lawyer to investigate claims that they were complicit in the development of enhanced interrogation techniques that constituted torture.[159]
In August 2010, the U.S. weapons manufacturer Raytheon announced that it had partnered with a jail in Castaic, California, to use prisoners as test subjects for its Active Denial System that "fires an invisible heat beam capable of causing unbearable pain."[160] The device, dubbed "pain ray" by its critics, was rejected for fielding in Iraq due to Pentagon fears that it would be used as an instrument of torture.[161]
Academic research
In 1939, at the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home in
In 1961, in response to the
In 1971, Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford prison experiment in which twenty-four male students were randomly assigned roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. The participants adapted to their roles beyond Zimbardo's expectations with prison guards exhibiting authoritarian status and psychologically abusing the prisoners who were passive in their acceptance of the abuse. The experiment was largely controversial with criticisms aimed toward the lack of scientific principles and a control group, and for ethical concerns regarding Zimbardo's lack of intervention in the prisoner abuse.[163]
Pharmacological research
At Harvard University, in the late 1940s, researchers began performing experiments in which they tested diethylstilbestrol, a synthetic estrogen, on pregnant women at the Lying-In Hospital of the University of Chicago. The women experienced an abnormally high number of miscarriages and babies with low birth weight (LBW). None of the women were told that they were being experimented on.[164]
In 1962, researchers at the Laurel Children's Center in Maryland tested experimental acne medications on children. They continued their tests even after half of the children developed severe liver damage from the medications.[85]
In 2004, University of Minnesota research participant Dan Markingson died by suicide while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics: Seroquel (quetiapine), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Risperdal (risperidone). Writing on the circumstances surrounding Markingson's death in the study, which was designed and funded by Seroquel manufacturer AstraZeneca, University of Minnesota Professor of Bioethics Carl Elliott noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution.[165] Further investigation revealed financial ties to AstraZeneca by Markingson's psychiatrist, Dr. Stephen C. Olson, oversights and biases in AstraZeneca's trial design, and the inadequacy of university Institutional Review Board (IRB) protections for research subjects.[166] A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued. A Mother Jones article[167] resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson's death.[168]
Other experiments
The 1846 journals of Walter F. Jones of Petersburg, Virginia, describe how he poured boiling water onto the backs of naked slaves afflicted with
In 1942, the
In 1950, researchers at the Cleveland City Hospital ran experiments to study changes in
In a series of studies which were published in the medical journal Pediatrics, researchers from the
The San Antonio Contraceptive Study was a clinical research study published in 1971 about the side effects of oral contraceptives. Women coming to a clinic in San Antonio, Texas to prevent pregnancies were not told they were participating in a research study or receiving placebos. Ten of the women became pregnant while on placebos.[175][176][177]
During the decade of 2000–2010, artificial blood was transfused into research subjects across the United States without their consent by
In the 2010s, Facebook breached ethical guidelines by conducting a research experiment to manipulate 700,000 users' emotions without their consent.[180]
According to the 2008 report by the U.S. Congressional Research Service, "Developments in biotechnology, including genetic engineering, may produce a wide variety of live agents and toxins that are difficult to detect and counter; and new chemical warfare agents and mixtures of chemical weapons and biowarfare agents are being developed . . . Countries are using the natural overlap between weapons and civilian applications of chemical and biological materials to conceal chemical weapon and bioweapon production."
Legal, academic and professional policy
During the Nuremberg Medical Trials, several of the Nazi doctors and scientists who were being tried for their human experiments cited past unethical studies performed in the United States in their defense, namely the Chicago malaria experiments conducted by Joseph Goldberger.[50] Subsequent investigation led to a report by Andrew Conway Ivy, who testified that the research was "an example of human experiments which were ideal because of their conformity with the highest ethical standards of human experimentation".[181] The trials contributed to the formation of the Nuremberg Code in an effort to prevent such abuses.[182]
A secret AEC document dated April 17, 1947, titled Medical Experiments in Humans stated: "It is desired that no document be released which refers to experiments with humans that might have an adverse reaction on public opinion or result in legal suits. Documents covering such fieldwork should be classified Secret."[60]
At the same time, the
In 1964, the World Medical Association passed the Declaration of Helsinki, a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation.
In 1966, the United States
In 1969, Kentucky Court of Appeals Judge Samuel Steinfeld dissented in Strunk v. Strunk, 445 S.W.2d 145. He made the first judicial suggestion that the Nuremberg Code should be applied to American jurisprudence.
In 1974, the
Project
In 1975, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW) created regulations which included the recommendations laid out in the NIH's 1966 Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects. Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations, known as "The Common Rule", requires the appointment and use of institutional review boards (IRBs) in experiments using human subjects.
On April 18, 1979, prompted by an investigative journalist's public disclosure of the
In 1987 the
No judicially crafted rule should insulate from liability the involuntary and unknowing human experimentation alleged to have occurred in this case. Indeed, as Justice Brennan observes, the United States played an instrumental role in the criminal prosecution of Nazi scientists who experimented with human subjects during the Second World War, and the standards that the Nuremberg Military Tribunals developed to judge the behavior of the defendants stated that the 'voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential ... to satisfy moral, ethical, and legal concepts.' If this principle is violated, the very least that society can do is to see that the victims are compensated, as best they can be, by the perpetrators.
On January 15, 1994, President Bill Clinton formed the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments (ACHRE). This committee was created to investigate and report the use of human beings as test subjects in experiments involving the effects of ionizing radiation in federally funded research. The committee attempted to determine the causes of the experiments and reasons that the proper oversight did not exist. It made several recommendations to help prevent future occurrences of similar events.[186]
As of 2007, no U.S. government researcher had been prosecuted for human experimentation. The preponderance of the victims of U.S. government experiments have not received compensation or, in many cases, acknowledgment of what was done to them.[187]
Some authors have proposed a structured ethical framework based on an Ethics of Political Commemoration for offering institutional gestures of redress for transgressions, based on an approach similar to the just war theory.[188]
See also
References
Citations
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"In 1949, the AEC undertook Project GABRIEL, a secret effort to study the question of whether the tests could threaten the viability of life on earth. In 1953, Gabriel led to Project Sunshine..." - U.S. Department of Energy, "Report on Project Gabriel", July 1954
- ^ Goncalves, Eddie (June 3, 2001). "Britain snatched babies' bodies for nuclear labs". The Guardian. London.
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- ^ a b c d Goliszek, 2003: pp. 152–154
- ^ Michael Evans. "Science, Technology and the CIA". Gwu.edu. George Washington University. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
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- ^ a b Estabrooks, G.H. "Hypnosis comes of age". Science Digest, 44–50, April 1971
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See also:
*Related Publications
*Outside Academic Experts Respond to Experiments in Torture
*Complaint to Office of Human Research Protections Regarding Evidence of CIA Violations of Common Rule
*Experiments in Torture (video) - ^ Experiments in Torture: Medical Group Accuses CIA of Carrying Out Illegal Human Experimentation, Democracy Now!, June 8, 2010
- ^ Accounting for Torture: Being Faithful to our Values, (video) National Religious Campaign Against Torture (cited by PHR)
- ^ Risen, James (June 6, 2010). "Medical Ethics Lapses Cited in Interrogations". The New York Times.
- ^ ICRC Report on the Treatment of Fourteen "High Value Detainees" in CIA Custody, International Committee of the Red Cross, February 14, 2007
- ^ United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. "The Senate Committee's Report on the C.I.A.'s Use of Torture" December 9, 2014.
- ^ "Statement of APA Board of Directors: Outside Counsel to Conduct Independent Review of Allegations of Support for Torture". American Psychological Association. November 12, 2014.
- ^ "California Jail to Test Ray Gun on Prisoners". Democracy Now!. August 23, 2010.
- ^ Weinberger, Sharon (August 30, 2007). "No Pain Ray for Iraq". Wired. Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved December 13, 2008.
- San Jose Mercury News, Monday, June 11, 2001 (Retrieved February 17, 2010)
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- ^ Loue, 2000: p. 30
- ^ "The deadly corruption of clinical trials. One patient's tragic, and telling, story". Mother Jones. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
- ^ Carl. "Dan Markingson Investigation". Retrieved February 14, 2016.
- ^ "The deadly corruption of clinical trials. One patient's tragic, and telling, story".
- ^ "U of M Board of Regents Markingson Letter". Scribd. Retrieved February 14, 2016.
- ^ Washington, 2008: pp. 60–63
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- ^ Shamoo & Resnick, 2009: p. 239
- ^ Cina & Perper, 2010: p. 92
- ^ Hornblum, 1999: p. 80
- ^ Dober, Gregory "Cheaper than Chimpanzees: Expanding the Use of Prisoners in Medical Experiments", Prison Legal News, Vol. 19 No. 3, March 2008
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- ^ Brian Ross (May 23, 2007). "Test of Controversial Artificial Blood Product a Failure". ABC News, "The Blotter".
- ^ Ed Edelson (April 28, 2008). "Experimental Blood Substitutes Unsafe, Study Finds". ABC News.
- ^ "Facebook emotion study breached ethical guidelines, researchers say". The Guardian. June 30, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2021.
- ^ Bernard, Larry. "Historian examines U.S. ethics in Nuremberg Medical Trial tactics." Cornell Chronicle
- ^ Weindling, Paul (Spring 2001). "The Origins of Informed Consent – Nuremberg Code", Bulletin of the History of Medicine
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General and cited references
- ISBN 978-0-19-510106-5.
- Brody, Baruch A. (1998). The Ethics of Biomedical Research: An International Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509007-9.
- Cina, Stephen J.; Perper, Joshua A. (2010). When Doctors Kill. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-1368-5.
- Cole, Leonard A. (1996). The Eleventh Plague: The Politics of Biological and Chemical Warfare. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-7214-3.
- Eckart, Wolfgang Uwe (2006). Man, Medicine, and the State: The human body as an object of government sponsored medical research in the 20th century. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08794-0.
- Goliszek, Andrew (2003). In The Name of Science. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-30356-3.
- Grodin, Michael A.; Glantz, Leonard H., eds. (1994). Children as Research Subjects: Science, ethics, and law. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-507103-0.
- Halpern, Sydney A. (2006). Lesser Harms: The Morality of Risk in Medical Research. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31452-5.
- Hornblum, Allen M. (1998). Acres of Skin: Human experiments at Holmesburg Prison, a story of abuse and exploitation in the name of medical science. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91990-6.
- Hornblum, Allen M. (2007). Sentenced to Science: One Black Man's Story of Imprisonment in America. The Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-03336-5.
- Lederer, Susan E. (1997). Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America Before the Second World War. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5709-6.
- Loue, Sana (2000). Textbook of research ethics: theory and practice. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-46448-5.
- McCoy, Alfred W. (2006). A question of torture: CIA Interrogation, From the Cold War to the War on Terror. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-8041-4.
- Moreno, Jonathan D. (2001). Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92835-9.
- Otterman, Michael (2007). American torture: from the Cold War to Abu Ghraib and beyond. Melbourne Univ. Publishing. ISBN 978-0-522-85333-9.
- David J. Rothman (1992). Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08210-0.
- Shamoo, Adil E.; Resnik, David B. (2009). Responsible Conduct of Research. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-536824-6.
- Washington, Harriet A. (2008). Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present. Random House. ISBN 978-0-7679-1547-2.
Further resources
General
- "Human Research Report" - a monthly newsletter on protecting human subjects
- Frankel, Mark S. (1975). "The Development of Policy Guidelines Governing Human Experimentation in the United States". Ethics in Science and Medicine. Vol. 2.
- Hornblum, Allen M.; Newman, Judith Lynn; Dober, Gregory J. (2013). Against Their Will: The Secret History of Medical Experimentation on Children in Cold War America. New York, NY: ISBN 978-0-230-34171-5.
- Jonsen, Albert R. (1998). The Birth of Bioethics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517147-1.
- Kalechofsky, Roberta. Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi Era and After. Archived from the original on August 21, 2011. Retrieved February 18, 2010.
- Weyers, Wolfgang (2003). The Abuse of Man: An illustrated history of dubious medical experimentation. Ardor Scribendi. ISBN 978-1-893357-21-1.
Biological warfare and disease/pathogen experiments
- Bibliography of Chemical and Biological Warfare documents Archived February 11, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
- The History of Bioterrorism in America, Richard Sanders, Race and History, Sunday, November 24, 2002 (Retrieved February 18, 2010)
- Introduction to Biological Weapons – Federation of American Scientists
- Franz, et al., The U.S. Biological Warfare and Biological Defense Programs
- US Army Activities in the US Biological Warfare Program, 1977 Congressional report
- Christopher et al., "Biological warfare. A historical perspective", Journal of the American Medical Association. 6 August 1997;278(5):412-7.
- "Years Ago, The Military Sprayed Germs on U.S. Cities", Wall Street Journal, October 22, 2001, via American Patriot Friends Network. Retrieved November 13, 2008.
Human radiation experiments
Books
- ISBN 978-0-440-04567-0
- ISBN 978-0-385-31402-2
- The Treatment: The Story of Those Who Died in the Cincinnati Radiation Tests, by Martha Stephens, ISBN 0-8223-2811-9
- Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining Control in a Post-Nuclear, Post-Colonial World, by Holly M. Barker, Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-534-61326-8
Government documents
- Adherence To and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments - U. S. Congressional Research Service
- Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments (ACHRE) – National Security Archives
- Exposure of the American population to radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons tests: a review of the CDC-NCI draft report on a feasibility study of the health consequences to the American population from nuclear weapons tests conducted by the United States and other nations, National Research Council (U.S.). Committee to Review the CDC-NCI Feasibility Study of the Health Consequences from Nuclear Weapons Tests, National Academies Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0-309-08713-1
Journals
- "'A Little Touch of Buchenwald': America's Secret Radiation Experiments", Reviews in American History – Volume 28, Number 4, December 2000, pp. 601–606
- Chair's Perspective on the Work of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments by Ruth Faden
Psychological/torture/interrogation experiments
- Bibliography of U.S. interrogation/torture research
- Truth, torture, and the American way, Jennifer Harbury
- Biderman, A. Social-Psychological Needs and "Involuntary" Behavior as Illustrated by Compliance in Interrogation, Sociometry, Vol. 23, No. 2 (June 1960), pp. 120–147
- The CIA: Mind-Bending Disclosures – Time Magazine, Monday, August 15, 1977 (Retrieved February 18, 2010)
- Resources on Drug Experimentation and Related Mind Control Experiments by the U.S. Government
- Khatchadourian, Raffi (December 7, 2012) "Operation Delirium", The New Yorker
Video
- MKULTRA Victim Testimony A – 1977 MKULTRA Congressional Hearings
- MKULTRA Victim Testimony B – 1977 MKULTRA Congressional Hearings
- MKULTRA Victim Testimony C – 1977 MKULTRA Congressional Hearings
- President Clinton apologizes for Human Radiation Experiments
- Complete transcript of Clinton's apology for Human Radiation Experiments
- Physicians for Human Rights Accuses CIA of Carrying Out Illegal Human Experimentation – video report by Democracy Now!
- The Dark History of Medical Experimentation from the Nazis to Tuskegee to Puerto Rico – video report by Democracy Now!