Human interactions with insects

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Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Lytta vesicatoria, has been considered to have medicinal, aphrodisiac
, and other properties.

Human interactions with insects include both a wide variety of uses, whether practical such as for food, textiles, and dyestuffs, or symbolic, as in art, music, and literature, and negative interactions including damage to crops and extensive efforts to control insect pests.

Academically, the interaction of insects and society has been treated in part as cultural entomology, dealing mostly with "advanced" societies, and in part as ethnoentomology, dealing mostly with "primitive" societies, though the distinction is weak and not based on theory. Both academic disciplines explore the parallels, connections and influence of

biomimicry
, do not necessarily lie within these academic disciplines.

More generally, people make a wide range of uses of insects, both practical and symbolic. On the other hand, attitudes to insects are often negative, and extensive efforts are made to kill them. The widespread use of

insect pest
, but has caused resistance to commonly-used chemicals in a thousand insect species.

Practical uses include

anaesthetics
.

Symbolic uses include roles in art, in music (with many songs featuring insects), in film, in literature, in religion, and in mythology. Insect costumes are used in theatrical productions and worn for parties and carnivals.

Context

Culture

mythology, philosophy, literature, and science.[1]
This article describes the roles played by insects in human culture so defined.

Cultural entomology and ethnoentomology

"Remarkable Beetles Found at Simunjon, Borneo": Alfred Russel Wallace was a pioneer of ethnoentomology.

Ethnoentomology developed from the 19th century with early works by authors such as

Frederick Simon Bodenheimer's Insects as Human Food (1951) drew attention to the scope and potential of entomophagy, and showed a positive aspect of insects. Food is the most studied topic in ethnoentomology, followed by medicine and beekeeping.[2]

Fighting insects: an agricultural aircraft applies low-insecticide bait to kill western corn rootworms.

In 1968,

myriapods) in literature, language, music, the arts, interpretive history, religion, and recreation has only become recognized as a distinct field" through Schimitschek's work.[3][6][7]
Hogue set out the boundaries of the field by saying: "The narrative history of the science of entomology is not part of cultural entomology, while the influence of insects on general history would be considered cultural entomology."[8] He added: "Because the term "cultural" is narrowly defined, some aspects normally included in studies of human societies are excluded."[8]

Darrell Addison Posey, noting that the boundary between cultural entomology and ethnoentomology is difficult to draw, cites Hogue as limiting cultural entomology to the influence of insects on "the essence of humanity as expressed in the arts and humanities". Posey notes further that cultural anthropology is usually restricted to the study of "advanced", industrialised, and literate societies, whereas ethnoentomology studies "the entomological concerns of 'primitive' or 'noncivilized' societies". Posey states at once that the division is artificial, complete with an unjustified us/them bias.

gnostic fashion" with a simplistic treatment of Western, often 17th-century, mechanistic attitude. Morris considers this "quite unhelpful, if not misleading", and offers instead his own research into the multiple ways that the people of Malawi relate to insects and other animals: "pragmatic, intellectual, realist, practical, aesthetic, symbolic and sacramental."[9]

Benefits and costs

Insect ecosystem services

Pollination, here by a bee on an avocado crop, is an ecosystem service.

The

Asian tiger mosquito or the fire ant, appears in our midst. In other words: Start thinking about the bugs."[15]

Pests and propaganda

In the war against the potato beetle, East German Young Pioneers were urged to collect and kill Colorado beetles.
Further information: Economic entomology § Harmful insects

Human attitudes toward insects are often negative, reinforced by

pests, and less than 10,000 (about 1%) are even occasional pests.[17] Yet not one species of insect has been permanently eradicated through the use of pesticides. Instead, at least 1,000 species have developed field resistance to pesticides, and extensive harm has been done to beneficial insects including pollinators such as bees.[18]

During the

CIA, demonising the species in propaganda posters, and urging children to gather the beetles and kill them.[19]

Practical uses

As food

Main articles: Insects as food and Entomophagy
Witchetty grubs were prized as food by the Arrernte people of Australia

sub-Saharan Africa prefer caterpillars to beef, while Chakravorty et al. (2011)[21] point out that food insects (highly appreciated in North-East India) are more expensive than meat. The economics, i.e., the costs involved collecting food insects and the money earned through the sale of such insects, have been studied in a Laotian setting by Meyer-Rochow et al. (2008).[22] In Mexico, ant larvae and corixid water boatman eggs are sought out as a form of caviar by gastronomes. In Guangdong, water beetles fetch a high enough price for these insects to be farmed. Especially high prices are fetched in Thailand for the giant water bug Lethocerus indicus.[23]

Insects used in food include honey bee larvae and pupae,[24][25] mopani worms,[26] silkworms,[27] Maguey worms,[28] Witchetty grubs,[29] crickets,[30] grasshoppers[31] and locusts.[32] In Thailand, there are 20,000 farmers rearing crickets, producing some 7,500 tons per year.[33]

In medicine

Eciton burchellii army ants were used by the Mayans as living sutures, their powerful jaws holding a wound closed.
Main article: Insects in medicine

Insects have been used medicinally in cultures around the world, often according to the

haemorrhages, and frequent urination.[34]

bee bread, or bee pollen, is eaten as a generally health restorative, and is said to help treat both internal and external infections.[34] One of the major peptides in bee venom, melittin, has the potential to treat inflammation in sufferers of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.[39]

The rise of

antibiotic resistant infections has sparked pharmaceutical research for new resources, including into arthropods.[40]

Maggot therapy uses blowfly larvae to perform wound-cleaning debridement.[41]

Cantharidin, the blister-causing oil found in several families of beetles described by the vague common name Spanish fly has been used as an aphrodisiac in some societies.[39]

Blood-feeding insects like

anaesthetics, AMPs and microbial pattern recognition molecules, and parasite enhancers/activators.[39][43][44][45]

In science and technology

The common fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the most widely used model organisms in biological research.

Insects play an important role in biological research. Because of its small size, short generation time and high

origin of life.[47]

Cochineal scale insects being collected from a prickly pear in Central America. Illustration by José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez, 1777

Some hemipterans are used to produce

deter predators. Up to 100,000 scale insects are needed to make a kilogram (2.2 lbs) of cochineal dye.[48][49]

A similarly enormous number of lac bugs are needed to make a kilogram of shellac, a brush-on colourant and wood finish.[50] Additional uses of this traditional product include the waxing of citrus fruits to extend their shelf-life, and the coating of pills to moisture-proof them, provide slow-release or mask the taste of bitter ingredients.[51]

kermes oak. They were used as a red dye by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The kermes dye is a rich red, and has good colour fastness in silk and wool.[52][53][54][55][56]

Namib desert beetle
, Stenocara gracilipes, channels water from fog down its wings.

Insect

hydrophobic (water-shedding) sides, have been mimicked in a film coating designed for the British Ministry of Defence, to capture water in arid regions.[60][61]

In textiles

Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, Song dynasty, 1100–1133
Main articles: Sericulture and History of silk

Silkworms, the caterpillars and pupae of the moth

silk road leading west from China was opened in the 2nd century AD, helping to drive trade in silk and other goods.[66]

In warfare

Main article: Entomological warfare

The use of

Colorado beetles to destroy enemy potato crops.[69] During the Cold War, the US Army considered using yellow fever mosquitoes to attack Soviet cities.[67]

Symbolic uses

In mythology and folklore

Thriai, found at Camiros Rhodes
, dated to the 7th century BC.
Main article: Insects in mythology

Insects have appeared in mythology around the world from ancient times. Among the insect groups featuring in myths are the

shamanistic Old World cultures. The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality.[23][70] In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, the goddess Aphrodite retells the legend of how Eos, the goddess of the dawn, requested Zeus to let her lover Tithonus live forever as an immortal.[71] Zeus granted her request, but, because Eos forgot to ask him to also make Tithonus ageless, Tithonus never died, but he did grow old.[71] Eventually, he became so tiny and shriveled that he turned into the first cicada.[71]

In an ancient

Dumuzid is being chased by galla demons.[72] Flies also appear on Old Babylonian seals as symbols of Nergal, the god of death[72] and fly-shaped lapis lazuli beads were often worn by many different cultures in ancient Mesopotamia, along with other kinds of fly-jewellery.[72] The Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh contains allusions to dragonflies, signifying the impossibility of immortality.[23][70]

Amongst the

praying mantis which holds much cultural significance including creation and zen-like patience in waiting.[23][70]
: 9 

Woolly bear caterpillar larva of the isabella tiger moth, Pyrrharctia isabella, is celebrated in the annual Woollybear Festival of the American Great Lakes.

Insects feature in folklore around the world. In China, farmers traditionally regulated their crop planting according to the Awakening of the Insects, when temperature shifts and monsoon rains bring insects out of hibernation. Most "awakening" customs are related to eating snacks like pancakes, parched beans, pears, and fried corn, symbolizing harmful insects in the field.[73]

Shoen Uemura - firefly, a sign of summer in Japan

In the Great Lakes region of the United States, there is an annual Woollybear Festival that has been celebrated for over 40 years. The larvae of the species Pyrrharctia isabella (commonly known as the isabella tiger moth), with their 13 distinct segments of black and reddish brown, have the reputation in common folklore of being able to forecast the coming winter weather.[74]

There is a common misconception that

cockroaches are serious vectors of disease, but while they can carry bacteria they do not travel far, and have no bite or sting.[75][76] Their shells contain a protein, arylphorin, implicated in asthma and other respiratory conditions.[77]

Among the deep-sea fishermen of Greenock in Scotland, there is a belief that if a fly falls into a glass from which a person has been drinking, or is about to drink, it is a sure omen of good luck to the drinker.[78]

Many people believe the urban myth that the daddy longlegs (Opiliones) has the most poisonous bite in the spider world, but that the fangs are too small to penetrate human skin. This is untrue on several counts. None of the known species of harvestmen have venom glands; their chelicerae are not hollowed fangs but grasping claws that are typically very small and definitely not strong enough to break human skin.[79][80]

In Japan, the emergence of fireflies and rhinoceros beetles signify the anticipated changing of the seasons.[81]

In religion

Scarab with separate wings, c. 712-342 BC.
Main article: Insects in religion

In the Brazilian

Tupí–Guaraní language family have been observed using Pachycondyla commutata ants during female rite-of-passage ceremonies, and prescribing the sting of Pseudomyrmex spp. for fevers and headaches.[82]

The red harvester ant Pogonomyrmex californicus has been widely used by natives of Southern California and Northern Mexico for hundreds of years in ceremonies conducted to help tribe members acquire spirit helpers through hallucination. During the ritual, young men are sent away from the tribe and consume large quantities of live, unmasticated ants under the supervision of an elderly member of the tribe. Ingestion of ants should lead to a prolonged state of unconsciousness, where dream helpers appear and serve as allies to the dreamer for the rest of his life.[83]

In art

watercolour and gold on paper, with applied beetlewing
fragments
Main article: Insects in art

Both the symbolic form and the actual body of insects have been used to adorn humans in ancient and modern times. A recurrent theme for ancient cultures in Europe and the Near East regarded the sacred image of a bee or human with insect features. Often referred to as the bee "goddess", these images were found in gems and stones. An onyx gem from Knossos (ancient Crete) dating to approximately 1500 BC illustrates a Bee goddess with bull horns above her head. In this instance, the figure is surrounded by dogs with wings, most likely representing Hecate and Artemis – gods of the underworld, similar to the Egyptian gods Akeu and Anubis.[84]

Beetlewing art is an ancient craft technique using iridescent beetle wings practiced traditionally in Thailand, Myanmar, India, China and Japan. Beetlewing pieces are used as an adornment to paintings, textiles and jewelry. Different species of metallic wood-boring beetle wings were used depending on the region, but traditionally the most valued were those from beetles belonging to the genus Sternocera. The practice comes from across Asia and Southeast Asia, especially Thailand, Myanmar, Japan, India and China. In Thailand beetlewings were preferred to decorate clothing (shawls and Sabai cloth) and jewellery in former court circles.[85]

cardinal beetle, centre left; magpie moth, centre right; cockchafer
, lower left.

The Canadian entomologist Charles Howard Curran's 1945 book, Insects of the Pacific World, noted women from India and Sri Lanka, who kept 1+1⁄2 inch (38 mm) long, iridescent greenish coppery beetles of the species Chrysochroa ocellata as pets. These living jewels were worn on festive occasions, probably with a small chain attached to one leg anchored to the clothing to prevent escape. Afterwards, the insects were bathed, fed, and housed in decorative cages. Living jewelled beetles have also been worn and kept as pets in Mexico.[86]

Butterflies have long inspired humans with their life cycle, color, and ornate patterns. The novelist Vladimir Nabokov
was also a renowned butterfly expert. He published and illustrated many butterfly species, stating:

I discovered in nature the nonutilitarian delights that I sought in art. Both were a form of magic, both were games of intricate enchantment and deception.[87]

It was the aesthetic complexity of insects that led Nabokov to reject natural selection.[88][89]

The naturalist Ian MacRae writes of butterflies:

the animal is at once awkward, flimsy, strange, bouncy in flight, yet beautiful and immensely sympathetic; it is painfully transient, albeit capable of extreme migrations and transformations. Images and phrases such as "kaleidoscopic instabilities," "oxymoron of similarities," "rebellious rainbows," "visible darkness" and "souls of stone" have much in common. They bring together the two terms of a conceptual contradiction, thereby facilitating the mixing of what should be discrete and mutually exclusive categories ... In positing such questions, butterfly science, an inexhaustible, complex, and finely nuanced field, becomes not unlike the human imagination, or the field of literature itself. In the natural history of the animal, we begin to sense its literary and artistic possibilities.[90]

The photographer

The Butterfly Alphabet.[91]

In 2011, the artist Anna Collette created over 10,000 individual ceramic insects at Nottingham Castle, "Stirring the Swarm". Reviews of the exhibit offered a compelling narrative for cultural entomology: "the unexpected use of materials, dark overtones, and the straightforward impact of thousands of tiny multiples within the space. The exhibition was at once both exquisitely beautiful and deeply repulsive, and this strange duality was fascinating."[92][93]

In literature and film

Poster for the 1957 film The Deadly Mantis
Main articles: Insects in literature and Arthropods in film

The

Tom o'Bedlam in King Lear, "Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o'er bog and quagmire", driven mad by the constant pursuit.[94] In Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare similarly likens Cleopatra's hasty departure from the Actium battlefield to that of a cow chased by a gadfly.[95]
H. G. Wells introduced giant wasps in his 1904 novel The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth,[96] making use of the newly discovered growth hormones to lend plausibility to his science fiction.[97] Lafcadio Hearn's essay Butterflies analyses the treatment of the butterfly in Japanese literature, both prose and poetry. He notes that these often allude to Chinese tales, such as of the young woman that the butterflies took to be a flower. He translates 22 Japanese haiku poems about butterflies, including one by the haiku master Matsuo Bashō, said to suggest happiness in springtime: "Wake up! Wake up!—I will make thee my comrade, thou sleeping butterfly."[98]

The novelist Vladimir Nabokov was the son of a professional lepidopterist, and was interested in butterflies himself.[99] He wrote his novel Lolita while travelling on his annual butterfly-collection trips in the western United States.[100] He eventually became a leading lepidopterist. This is reflected in his fiction, where for example The Gift devotes two whole chapters (of five) to the tale of a father and son on a butterfly expedition.[101]

Horror films involving insects, sometimes called "big bug movies", include the pioneering 1954 Them!, featuring giant ants mutated by radiation, and the 1957 The Deadly Mantis.[102][103][104]

Dale H. Clayton his colleague for "the enormous contribution" Larson has made to their field through his cartoons.[105][106]

In music

Flight of the Bumblebee
Flight of the Bumblebee performed by the
US Army Band
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Main article: Insects in music

Some popular and influential pieces of music have had insects as their subjects. The French Renaissance composer Josquin des Prez wrote a frottola entitled El Grillo (lit. 'The Cricket'). It is among the most frequently sung of his works.[107] Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the "Flight of the Bumblebee" in 1899–1900 as part of his opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan. The piece is one of the most recognizable pieces in classical composition. The bumblebee in the story is a prince who has been transformed into an insect so that he can fly off to visit his father.[108][109][110] The play upon which the opera was based – written by Alexander Pushkin – originally had two more insect themes: the Flight of the Mosquito and the Flight of the Fly.[111] The Hungarian composer Béla Bartók explained in his diary that he was attempting to depict the desperate attempts to escape of a fly caught in a cobweb in his piece From the Diary of a Fly, for piano (Mikrokosmos Vol. 6/142).[112]

The jazz musician and philosophy professor David Rothenberg plays duets with singing insects including cicadas, crickets, and beetles.[113]

In astronomy and cosmology

The constellation Musca (as Apis) is upper right. Detail from Johann Bayer's Uranometria, 1603

In astronomy, constellations named after arthropods include the zodiacal Scorpius, the scorpion,[114][115] and Musca, the fly, also known as Apis, the bee, in the deep southern sky. Musca, the only recognised insect constellation, was named by Petrus Plancius in 1597.[116]

The Butterfly Nebula, NGC 6302

"The Bug Nebula", also called "The Butterfly Nebula", is a more recent discovery. Known as NGC 6302 is one of the brightest and most popular stars in the universe – popular in that its features draw the attention of a lot of researchers. It happens to be located in the Scorpius constellation. It is perfectly bipolar, and until recently, the central star was unobservable, clouded by gas, but estimated to be one of the hottest in the galaxy – 200,000 degrees Fahrenheit, perhaps 35 times hotter than the Sun.[117][118]

The honey bee played a central role in the cosmology of the

Gukumatz and Quetzalcoatl in other parts of Mexico), Quetzalcoatl is a Mesoamerican deity whose name in Nahuatl means "feathered serpent". The cult was the first Mesoamerican religion to transcend the old Classic Period linguistic and ethnic divisions. This cult facilitated communication and peaceful trade among peoples of many different social and ethnic backgrounds.[120] Although the cult was originally centered on the ancient city of Chichén Itzá in the modern Mexican state of Yucatán, it spread as far as the Guatemalan highlands.[121]

In costumes

A bee costume for a Mardi Gras celebration

Bee and other insect costumes are worn in a variety of countries for parties, carnivals and other celebrations.[122][123]

Ovo is an insect-themed production by the world renowned Canadian entertainment company Cirque du Soleil. The show looks at the world of insects and its biodiversity where they go about their daily lives until a mysterious egg appears in their midst, as the insects become awestruck about this iconic object that represents the enigma and cycles of their lives. The costuming was a fusion of arthropod body types blended with superhero armour. Liz Vandal, the lead costume designer, has a special affinity for the world of the insect:[124]

When I was just a kid I put rocks down around the yard near the fruit trees and I lifted them regularly to watch the insects who had taken up residence underneath them. I petted caterpillars and let butterflies into the house. So when I learned that OVO was inspired by insects, I immediately knew that I was in a perfect position to pay tribute to this majestic world with my costumes. All insects are beautiful and perfect; it is what they evoke for each of us that changes our perception of them."[124]

The Webby award-winning video series Green Porno was created to showcase the reproductive habits of insects. Jody Shapiro and Rick Gilbert were responsible for translating the research and concepts that Isabella Rossellini envisioned into the paper and paste costumes which directly contribute to the series' unique visual style. The film series was driven by the creation of costumes to translate scientific research into "something visual and how to make it comical."[125]

See also

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Further reading

External links
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