Human skeleton
Human skeleton | |
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Oklahoma City, Oklahoma | |
Details | |
Identifiers | |
Greek | σκελετός |
TA98 | A02.0.00.000 |
TA2 | 352 |
FMA | 23881 |
Anatomical terminology] |
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the
The human skeleton performs six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of
The human skeleton is not as
Divisions
Axial
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the
The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the
Appendicular
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Functions
The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the
Movement
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.[5][6][7]
Protection
The skeleton helps to protect many vital internal
- The skull protects the brain
- The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
- The lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
Blood cell production
The skeleton is the site of
Storage
The
Endocrine regulation
Bone cells release a
Sex differences
Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as
Skull
A variety of gross morphological traits of the
Dentition
Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes.
Long bones
Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.
Pelvis
The human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.[11]
Women's pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the pelvis to allow for child birth. The sacrum in the women's pelvis is curved inwards to allow the child to have a "funnel" to assist in the child's pathway from the uterus to the birth canal.
Clinical significance
There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.
Arthritis
Arthritis is a disorder of the joints. It involves inflammation of one or more joints. When affected by arthritis, the joint or joints affected may be painful to move, may move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis, can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced
Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium supplements may also be advised, as may vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, strontium ranelate, and osteoporosis may be one factor considered when commencing hormone replacement therapy.[12]
History
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2014) |
India
Suśruta-saṃhitā, composed between 6th century BCE and 5th century CE speaks of 360 bones. Books on Salya-Shastra (surgical science) know of only 300. The text then lists the total of 300 as follows: 120 in the extremities (e.g. hands, legs), 117 in the pelvic area, sides, back, abdomen and breast, and 63 in the neck and upwards.[14] The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified.[15] The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought, with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya-Caraka tradition.[15] The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count, and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone (both count cartilages as bones, unlike current medical practice).[16]
Hellenistic world
The study of bones in ancient Greece started under
Renaissance
18th century
As early as 1797, the death goddess or folk saint known as Santa Muerte has been represented as a skeleton.[24][25]
See also
References
- ISBN 9780761478829.
- ^ "Healthy Bones at Every Age". OrthoInfo. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Archived from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
- ^ Thieme Atlas of Anatomy, (2006), p 113
- ISBN 0-313-22355-6
- ^ "Switching Farming Made Human Bone Skeleton Joint Lighter". Smithsonian Magazine. 23 December 2014.
- ^ "Light human skeleton may have come after agriculture". Retrieved 4 March 2017.
- ^ "With the Advent of Agriculture, Human Bones Dramatically Weakened". 22 December 2014. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
- PMID 24237971.
- PMID 17693256.
- ^ Buikstra, J.E.; D.H. Ubelaker (1994). Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey. p. 208.
- PMID 5772048.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7.)
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has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 7941614.
- ^ Hoernle 1907, p. 70.
- ^ a b Hoernle 1907, pp. 70–72.
- ^ Hoernle 1907, pp. 73–74.
- S2CID 37476347.
- PMID 24904674.
- ^ "Debunking a myth". Harvard Gazette. 7 April 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- ISBN 9780801894145.
- ^ Sooke, Alastair. "Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomy of an artist". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
- ^ Bambach, Carmen. "Anatomy in the Renaissance". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
- ^ "Vesalius's Renaissance anatomy lessons". www.bl.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
- LCCN 2011009177. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
- ^ Livia Gershon (October 5, 2020). "Who is Santa Muerte?". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 2021-11-30.
Bibliography
- Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.