Human spaceflight programs
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries (Soviet Union/Russia, United States and China) and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies (Scaled Composites and Blue Origin) had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.
The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 100 kilometers (62 mi). In the United States professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 80 kilometers (50 mi) are awarded the United States Astronaut Badge. This article follows the FAI definition of spaceflight.
Successful programs
Programs in this section are sorted by the years when the first successful crewed spaceflight took place.
Vostok program (USSR, 1956–1964)
The
Vostok 1 was the first
There were six Vostok flights in total, including the June, 1963
Project Mercury (USA, 1959–1963)
Project Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States. It ran from 1959 through 1963 with the goal of putting a human in orbit around the Earth. John Glenn's Mercury-Atlas 6 flight on 20 February 1962 was the first Mercury flight to achieve this goal. Prior to that, the Mercury-Redstone 3 mission brought the first American into space, Alan Shepard. It featured the first manual pilot control of the spacecraft and the landing with pilot still within it.[2][3]
Early planning and research was carried out by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and the program was officially conducted by the newly created NASA.
Because of their small size it was said that the Mercury spacecraft capsules were worn, not ridden. With 1.7 cubic metres (60 cu ft) of habitable volume, the capsule was just large enough for the single crew member. Inside were 120 controls: 55 electrical switches, 30 fuses and 35 mechanical levers. The spacecraft was designed by Max Faget and NASA's Space Task Group.
NASA ordered 20 production spacecraft, numbered 1 through 20, from
North American X-15 (USA, 1954–1968)
The
During the X-15 program, 13 of the flights (by eight pilots) met the USAF
Voskhod program (USSR, 1964–1965)
The
The Voskhod spacecraft was basically a Vostok spacecraft that had a backup, solid fuel retrorocket added to the top of the descent module. The heavier weight of the craft was made possible by improvements to the R-7 Semyorka-derived booster. The ejection seat was removed and two or three crew couches were added to the interior at a 90-degree angle to that of the Vostok crew position. However, the position of the in-flight controls was not changed, so the crew had to crane their heads 90 degrees to see the instruments.
While the Vostok program was dedicated towards understanding the effects of space travel and microgravity on the human body, Voskhod's two flights were aimed towards spectacular "firsts". Cosmonaut
Project Gemini (USA, 1965–1966)
Gemini was originally seen as a simple extrapolation of the Mercury program, and thus early on was called Mercury Mark II. The actual program had little in common with Mercury and was superior to even Apollo in some ways. This was mainly a result of its late start date, which allowed it to benefit from much that had been learned during the early stages of the Apollo project (which, despite its later launch dates, actually began before Gemini).
Soyuz program (USSR/Russia, 1967–ongoing)
The
The basic
The launch vehicles used in the Soyuz
Apollo Program (USA, 1961–1975)
The
Apollo was the third human spaceflight program undertaken by NASA, the
The goal of the program, as articulated by President Kennedy, was accomplished with only two major failures. The first failure resulted in the deaths of three astronauts,
, which badly damaged the spacecraft on the moonward leg of its journey. The three astronauts aboard narrowly escaped with their lives, thanks to the efforts of flight controllers, project engineers, backup crew members and the skills of the astronauts themselves.Space Shuttle (USA, 1972–2011)
NASA's
The Space Shuttle was the only winged spacecraft to achieve orbit and land with crew aboard, and the first of a small number of reusable space vehicles to make multiple flights into orbit (subsequently followed by the
China Manned Space Program (China, 1992–ongoing)
China was the first Asian country and third nation in the world, after the USSR and USA, to send humans into space. During the
A second, short-lived crewed program was based on the successful implementation of landing technology by FSW satellites. It was announced a few times in 1978 with the publishing of some details, including photos, but then was abruptly canceled in 1980. It has been argued that the second crewed program was created solely for propaganda purposes, and was never intended to produce results.[9]
In 1992, under
SpaceShipOne / SpaceShipTwo (USA, 2004–ongoing)
Virgin Galactic is a company within Sir Richard Branson's Virgin Group, which is developing a privately funded spacecraft called SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo, in conjunction with Scaled Composites to offer sub-orbital spaceflights and later orbital spaceflights to the paying public. SpaceShipOne reached space with a pilot in three test flights in 2004.
The objective of the project is to develop technology for low-cost routine access to space. Tier One is not itself intended to carry paying passengers, but it is envisioned that there will be commercial spinoffs, initially in space tourism. The company Mojave Aerospace Ventures was formed to manage commercial exploitation of the technology. A deal with Virgin Galactic could see routine space tourism, using a spacecraft based on Tier One technology.
The model finally developed into SpaceShipTwo, Virgin Galactic's second generation suborbital vehicle. On 10 October 2010, VSS Enterprise, the first SpaceShipTwo spaceplane, made its first crewed gliding test flight. By October 2014 SpaceShipTwo had conducted 54 test flights.[11] On October 31, 2014, SpaceShipTwo VSS Enterprise suffered an in-flight breakup during a powered flight test,[12][13] resulting in a crash killing one pilot and injuring the other. The second SpaceShipTwo, VSS Unity, made first flight tests in 2016.[14] VSS Unity made its first spaceflight (according to the U.S. definition of space) on December 13, 2018. Marking the end of the "shuttle gap." VSS Unity made its second spaceflight on February 22, 2019.
Dragon 2 (USA, 2010–ongoing)
The SpaceX Dragon 2 is a development of the robotic Dragon cargo spacecraft which has been re-supplying the International Space Station since 2010. The spacecraft is able to carry a crew of four astronauts to the International Space Station, with a planned maximum capacity of seven.[15] It includes a set of four side-mounted
To develop Dragon 2, SpaceX did a "pad abort" test in May 2015. A one-week uncrewed orbital flight to the ISS occurred in March 2019,[16] an in-flight abort test was successfully conducted on 19 January 2020. A crewed demonstration mission to the ISS launched on 30 May 2020.[17] The first operational crewed mission, Crew-1, flew to the ISS in November 2020 for a six month stay.[18] Dragon 2 has flown Inspiration4, the first purely private mission to Earth orbit.
New Shepard (USA, 2006–ongoing)
The
The first flight of the New Shepard vehicle was conducted on 29 April 2015 during which an altitude of 93,500 meters (307,000 ft) was attained. While the test itself was deemed a success and the capsule was correctly recovered via parachute landing, the booster stage landing failed because hydraulic pressure was lost during the descent.[21][22] Twelve subsequent flights (through January 2019), including two in-flight abort tests, took place with safe landings of both capsule and booster with two additional vehicles. New Shepard first flew humans to space on 20 July 2021 with the NS-16 mission.
Successful space station programs
(Dates refer to periods when stations were inhabited by crews.)
Salyut stations (USSR, 1971–1986)
The
- Salyut 1/DOS-1 (1971, 1 crew and 1 failed docking)
- Salyut 2/Almaz/OPS-1 (1973, failed shortly after launch)
- Salyut 3/Almaz/OPS-2 (1974, 1 crew and 1 failed docking)
- Salyut 4/DOS-4 (1975–1976, 2 crews)
- Salyut 5/Almaz/OPS-3 (1976–1977, 2 crews and 1 failed docking)
- Salyut 6/DOS-5 (1977–1981, 16 crews (5 long duration, 11 short duration) and 1 failed docking)
- Salyut 7/DOS-6 (1982–1986, 10 crews (6 long duration, 4 short duration) and 1 failed docking)
Skylab (USA, 1973–1974)
Skylab was launched and operated by NASA and was the United States' first space station. Skylab orbited Earth from 1973 to 1979, and included a workshop, a solar observatory, and other systems. It was launched uncrewed by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a weight of 169,950 pounds (77,090 kg). Three crewed missions to the station, conducted between 1973 and 1974 using the Apollo command and service module (CSM) atop the smaller Saturn IB, each delivered a three-astronaut crew. On the last two crewed missions, an additional Apollo / Saturn IB stood by ready to rescue the crew in orbit if it was needed.
Mir (USSR/Russia, 1986–2001)
Mir was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and set the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days until 23 October 2010 when it was surpassed by the
International Space Station (USA, Russia, Japan, Europe, Canada, 1998–ongoing)
The
The
As of May 2022 there have been
Tiangong program (China, 2010–ongoing)
In 2011, China launched the
In September 2016,
The goal of the next phase of
According to CMS announcement, all missions of Tiangong Space Station are scheduled to be carried out by the end of 2022.[39] Once the construction is completed, Tiangong will enter the application and development phase, which is poised to last for no less than 10 years.[39]
Space programs currently in development
Programs in this section are sorted by the years when their development started.
Dream Chaser (USA, 2004–ongoing)
The
Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (India, 2007–ongoing)
The
SPICA (Denmark, 2008–ongoing)
Copenhagen Suborbitals is an amateur crowd-funded, human space programme. Since its beginning in 2008, Copenhagen Suborbitals has flown five home-built rockets and two mock-up space capsules. Their stated goal is to have one of the members fly into space (above 100 km), on a sub-orbital spaceflight, in a space capsule on the Spica rocket.
HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe was the first rocket and spacecraft combination built by Copenhagen Suborbitals, a Danish organization attempting to perform the first amateur suborbital crewed spaceflight. The vehicle consisted of a motor named HEAT-1X and a spacecraft Tycho Brahe.[44]
In 2014, Copenhagen Suborbitals settled on the basic design for their first crewed rocket and space capsule. The rocket will be named Spica, and will stand 12–14 m tall with a diameter of 950 mm. It will be powered by the BPM-100 engine class, using liquid oxygen as oxidizer and ethanol as fuel, producing 100 kilonewtons of thrust.
Orel (Russia, 2009–ongoing)
Formerly called PPTS (Prospective Piloted Transport System) and Federation (Russian: Федерация, Federatsiya) Orel is a new multi-task Russian spacecraft for LEO, ISS and lunar missions. The spacecraft, when revealed in 2015, resembled NASA's Orion capsule and had a set of soft-landing type legs similar to the plans for Dragon 2 at that time. An uncrewed flight is planned in 2024.[45]
Commercial Crew Program (USA, 2011–ongoing)
The Commercial Crew Program is an economic stimulus program funds technology development related to human spaceflight by private companies. In September 2014 NASA awarded contracts to SpaceX and Boeing to build crewed spacecraft for low Earth orbit operations. Dragon 2, the capsule developed by SpaceX, is listed under "successful programs" as it first launched humans to space in May 2020.
Starliner (USA, 2010–ongoing)
The Boeing Starliner is a class of space capsules under construction by Boeing to transport crew to the International Space Station,[46] and to private space stations such as the proposed Bigelow Aerospace Commercial Space Station.[47] The Starliner is to support larger crews of up to seven people. The Starliner is designed to be able to remain on-orbit for up to seven months and for reusability for up to ten missions.
Starliner made an uncrewed test flight in December 2019 but failed to reach the ISS. Another uncrewed flight is planned for May 2022,[48] followed by a crewed demonstration flight in late 2022.
New Glenn (USA, 2012–ongoing)
New Glenn is an orbital launch vehicle under development by Blue Origin. The company expects a first flight no earlier 2023.[49] Like New Shepard, the first stage is designed to land vertically to be reusable. It can launch either a cargo or a crew capsule to space.[50]
Starship (USA, 2012-ongoing)
The SpaceX Starship is a fully reusable super heavy-lift launch vehicle[51] under development by SpaceX since 2012, as a self-funded private spaceflight project.[52][53][54]
The second stage of the Starship
Iranian crewed spaceship project (Iran, 2015–ongoing)
The Iranian crewed spacecraft is a proposal by the Iranian Aerospace Research Institute of Iranian Space Research Center (ISRC) to put an astronaut into space. The details of the design were published by the institute in its "Astronaut" publication in February 2015.[57] A mock up of the spaceship was displayed on 17 February 2015 during the ceremony of the national day of space of Iran.[58] The head of the institute announced that the spaceship will be launched to space in about a year.[59][60] The spaceship is supposed be able to carry a single astronaut to a 175 km height and return him to the Earth. The spaceship is designed under the code name "Class E Kavoshgar" project. Through December 2022, no further details have been published and no crewed launches have occurred.
Artemis program (USA, 2017–ongoing)
The Artemis program is an ongoing crewed spaceflight program carried out by NASA, U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as ESA,[61] with the goal of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region by 2025. Artemis would be the first step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to Mars.
Artemis 1 was the first mission of the Artemis Program and was the first integrated flight of the Space Launch System and the Orion (spacecraft). During the mission, an uncrewed Orion capsule spent 10 days in a 40,000 mi (64,000 km) distant retrograde orbit around the Moon before returning to Earth.[62]
Artemis 2, the first crewed mission of the program, is planned to launch four astronauts in May 2024[63] on a free-return flyby of the Moon at a distance of 4,000 miles (6,400 km).[64][65]
After Artemis 2, the Power and Propulsion Element of the
Artemis 3 is planned to be the maiden flight of the SLS Block 1B and will use the minimalist Gateway and expendable lander to achieve the first crewed lunar landing of the program. The flight is planned to touch down on the lunar south pole region, with two astronauts staying there for about one week.[67][68][69][70]
Commercial space stations (planned)
- CST-100 Starliner in 2020.[71]
- Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station (Russia)[72]
Programs canceled before crewed launch
Programs in this section are sorted by the years when their development started.
Man In Space Soonest (USA, 1957–1958)
Dyna-Soar (USA, 1957–1963)
The X-20
Manned Orbital Development System (USA, 1962–1963)
The
Soviet Orbital Station 1 (Soviet Union 1962–1965)
Western nickname "Battlestar Khrushchev" a nuclear-armed monolith station, about 5 times the volume of Salyut 1 and as heavy as Skylab. The station was designed for a crew of 6 and proceeded to mock-up stage before cancellation.
Manned Orbiting Laboratory (USA, 1963–1969)
The
Spiral program (Soviet Union, 1965 – late 1970s)
In accordance with the quinquennial plan of the Soviet air forces, the Spiral program to develop a 2-stage launcher plane began in 1965 and was entrusted to OKB-155 A.I.Mikojan whose chief of the engineering and design department was Lozino Lozinsky (55 years). The project received the name of SPIRAL and was to prepare the Soviet Union for a war in space.[73]
TKS (Soviet Union, 1970–1991)
The TKS spacecraft (Russian: Транспортный корабль снабжения, Transportnyi Korabl Snabzheniia, Transport Supply Spacecraft, GRAU index 11F72) was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space station. The spacecraft was designed for both crewed and autonomous uncrewed cargo resupply flights, but was never used operationally in its intended role – only four test missions were flown (including three that docked to Salyut space stations) during the program. The Functional Cargo Block (FGB) of the TKS spacecraft later formed the basis of several space station modules, including the Zarya FGB module on the International Space Station.
Buran program (Soviet Union, 1976–1993)
The
Shuguang (China, 1968–1972)
The
Piloted FSW program (China, 1978–1980)
The Piloted FSW program was the second Chinese crewed space program based on the successful achievement of landing technology (third in the world after USSR and USA) by FSW satellites.
Saenger (Germany, 1985)
The Saenger was a proposed two stage to orbit vehicle. Air-breathing hypersonic first stage and delta wing second stage. The German Hypersonics Program and its Saenger II reference vehicle received most of the domestic funding for spaceplane development in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[75] In 1995, the project was discontinued primarily due to concerns of development costs and limited gains in price and performance compared to the existing space launch systems such as the Ariane 5 rocket.[76]
HOTOL (UK, 1986–1988)
Zarya (Russia, 1986–1989)
The
Rockwell X-30 (USA, 1986–1993)
The Rockwell X-30 was an advanced technology demonstrator project for the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP), part of a United States project to create a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) spacecraft and passenger spaceliner. See also List of X-planes.
Hermes (ESA, 1987–1993)
MAKS (Russia, 1988–1991)
The MAKS (Russian: МАКС (Многоцелевая авиационно-космическая система), Multipurpose aerospace system) was a Soviet air-launched reusable launch system project with orbiter that was proposed in 1988 but canceled in 1991.
HOPE-X (Japan, 1980s–2003)
HOPE-X was a Japanese experimental spaceplane project designed by a partnership between NASDA and NAL (both now part of JAXA), started in the 1980s. It was positioned for most of its lifetime as one of the main Japanese contributions to the International Space Station, the other being the Japanese Experiment Module. The project was eventually canceled in 2003, by which point test flights of a sub-scale testbed had flown successfully.NASA
RAKS (Russia, 1993–?)
The Russian Aerospace Aircraft (RAKS) is being created within the framework of the research work (SRW) "Orel" commissioned by the Russian Aerospace Agency since 1993.[78][needs update]
Kankoh-maru (Japan, 1995)
The Kankoh-maru (観光丸? Kankōmaru) is the name of a proposed vertical takeoff and landing (VTVL), single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO), reusable launch system (rocket-powered spacecraft).
Ansari X Prize (World, 1996–2004)
The
Venturestar (USA, 1996–2001)
VentureStar was a single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system proposed by Lockheed Martin and funded by the U.S. government. The goal was to replace the Space Shuttle by developing a reusable spaceplane that could launch satellites into orbit at a fraction of the cost.
Fuji (Japan, 2001)
Hopper (ESA, 2000)
Hopper was a proposed European Space Agency orbital and reusable launch vehicle. The shuttle prototype spaceplane was one of several proposals for a European reusable launch vehicle (RLV) planned to cheaply ferry satellites into orbit by 2015. There have been no launches.
Kliper (Russia, 2004–2007)
Kliper (Russian: Клипер, Clipper) was a partly reusable crewed spacecraft concept, proposed in the early 2000s by RSC Energia. Due to lack of funding from the ESA and RSA, the project was indefinitely postponed by 2006.
Project Constellation (USA, 2004–2010)
The Constellation program was canceled in 2010 and replaced with the Artemis program based on the Space Launch System.[79][80][81][82][83]
XCOR Lynx (USA, 2008–2016)
The
According to a September 2015 report, the first flight of the Lynx spaceplane was proposed to be in the second quarter of 2016 from Midland, Texas,[84] but the company halted spaceplane development in May 2016 and refocused on its LOX/H2 engine technology.[85]
OPSEK (Russia, 2009–2017)
The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (abbreviated OPSEK)[86][87] was a proposed third-generation modular space station in Low Earth orbit. OPSEK would initially consist of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station (ISS) from 2024. It would then add new modules to it. It was canceled in 2017.
See also
- Human spaceflight
- List of crewed spacecraft
- List of private spaceflight companies
- List of human spaceflights
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