Human

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
Listen to this article
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Humans
)
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Human (disambiguation), Mankind (disambiguation), Humankind (disambiguation), Human Race (disambiguation), Human Being (disambiguation), and Homo sapiens (disambiguation).

Human
Ma
↓
Chibanian – present
Male (left) and female (right) adult humans, Thailand, 2007
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species:
H. sapiens
Binomial name
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens population density (2005)

Humans (Homo sapiens) or modern humans are the most common and widespread

mythology, religion, and other frameworks of knowledge; humans also study themselves through such domains as anthropology, social science, history, psychology, and medicine. As of April 2024, there are estimated to be more than 8 billion humans alive
.

Although some scientists equate the term "humans" with all members of the genus

extant member. All other members of the genus Homo, which are now extinct, are known as archaic humans, and the term "modern human" is used to distinguish Homo sapiens from archaic humans. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from Homo heidelbergensis or a similar species. Migrating out of Africa, they gradually replaced and interbred with local populations of archaic humans. Multiple hypotheses for the extinction of archaic human species such as Neanderthals
include competition, violence, interbreeding with Homo sapiens, or inability to adapt to climate change.

For most of their history, humans were

Southwest Asia around 13,000 years ago (and separately in a few other places), saw the emergence of agriculture and permanent human settlement; in turn, this led to the development of civilization and kickstarted a period of continuous (and ongoing) population growth and rapid technological change. Since then, a number of civilizations have risen and fallen, while a number of sociocultural and technological
developments have resulted in significant changes to the human lifestyle.

body fat percentage. At puberty, humans develop secondary sex characteristics. Females are capable of pregnancy, usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and menopause
, around the age of 50.

Humans are

helpless at birth
.

Humans have a large, highly developed, and complex

reasoning and the transmission of knowledge to subsequent generations through language
.

Etymology and definition

Further information: Names for the human species and Human taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus coined the name Homo sapiens

All modern humans are classified into the

generic name "Homo" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin homō, which refers to humans of either sex.[3][4] The word human can refer to all members of the Homo genus.[5] The name "Homo sapiens" means 'wise man' or 'knowledgeable man'.[6] There is disagreement if certain extinct members of the genus, namely Neanderthals, should be included as a separate species of humans or as a subspecies of H. sapiens.[5]

Human is a loanword of Middle English from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the adjectival form of homō ('man' – in the sense of humanity).[7] The native English term man can refer to the species generally (a synonym for humanity) as well as to human males. It may also refer to individuals of either sex.[8]

Despite the fact that the word animal is colloquially used as an antonym for human,

persistent vegetative state).[11]

Evolution

Main article: Human evolution

Humans are apes (

superfamily Hominoidea).[12] The lineage of apes that eventually gave rise to humans first split from gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo), then gorillas (genus Gorilla), and finally, chimpanzees and bonobos (genus Pan). The last split, between the human and chimpanzee–bonobo lineages, took place around 8–4 million years ago, in the late Miocene epoch.[13][14] During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes.[15] Following their split with chimpanzees and bonobos, the hominins diversified into many species and at least two distinct genera. All but one of these lineages – representing the genus Homo and its sole extant species Homo sapiens – are now extinct.[16]

Reconstruction of Lucy, the first Australopithecus afarensis skeleton found

The genus Homo evolved from

archaic human species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia.[21] H. erectus also was the first to evolve a characteristically human body plan. Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either H. heidelbergensis or H. rhodesiensis, the descendants of H. erectus that remained in Africa.[22] H. sapiens migrated out of the continent, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans.[23][24][25] Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–70,000 years ago,[26] and possibly earlier.[27]

The "out of Africa" migration took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.[28][29] H. sapiens proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000 years ago,[30][31] Australia around 65,000 years ago,[32] the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand in the years 300 to 1280 CE.[33][34]

Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species.[35][36][37] Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution.[38] DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non sub-Saharan-African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day non sub-Saharan-African humans.[35][39][40]

Human evolution is characterized by a number of

physiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are hairlessness,[41] obligate bipedalism, increased brain size and decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.[42]

Hominoidea (hominoids, apes
)

Hylobatidae (gibbons)

Hominidae (hominids, 
great apes
)
Ponginae
Pongo (orangutans)

Pongo abelii

Pongo tapanuliensis

Pongo pygmaeus

Homininae (hominines)
Gorillini
Gorilla (gorillas)

Gorilla gorilla

Gorilla beringei

Hominini (hominins)
Panina
Pan (chimpanzees)

Pan troglodytes

Pan paniscus

Hominina
 (homininans)

Homo sapiens (humans)

History

Main article: Human history

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory
Overview map of the peopling of the world by early human migration during the Upper Paleolithic, following the Southern Dispersal paradigm

Until about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as

Southwest Asia and spread through large parts of the Old World over the following millennia.[45] It also occurred independently in Mesoamerica (about 6,000 years ago),[46] China,[47][48] Papua New Guinea,[49] and the Sahel and West Savanna regions of Africa.[50][51][52]

Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent

civilizations.[53][54][55]

Ancient

Main article: Ancient history
Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt

An

cuneiform script, appeared around 3000 BCE.[57] Other major civilizations to develop around this time were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilisation.[58] They eventually traded with each other and invented technology such as wheels, plows and sails.[59][60][61][62] Astronomy and mathematics were also developed and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built.[63][64][65] There is evidence of a severe drought lasting about a hundred years that may have caused the decline of these civilizations,[66] with new ones appearing in the aftermath. Babylonians came to dominate Mesopotamia while others,[67] such as the Poverty Point culture, Minoans and the Shang dynasty, rose to prominence in new areas.[68][69][70] The Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE resulted in the disappearance of a number of civilizations and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages.[71][72] During this period iron started replacing bronze, leading to the Iron Age.[73]

In the 5th century BCE, history started being

golden ages in their respective regions.[81][82]

Medieval

Main article: Post-classical history
Medieval French manuscript illustration of the three classes of medieval society from the 13th-century Li Livres dou Santé

Following the

Muslims.[87]

In the Americas, complex

Incas would become the dominant powers.[89] The Mongol Empire would conquer much of Eurasia in the 13th and 14th centuries.[90] Over this same time period, the Mali Empire in Africa grew to be the largest empire on the continent, stretching from Senegambia to Ivory Coast.[91] Oceania would see the rise of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which expanded across many islands in the South Pacific.[92]

Modern

Main articles: Early modern period and Late modern period
James Watt's steam engine

The

genocide of Native American peoples.[102] This period also marked the Scientific Revolution, with great advances in mathematics, mechanics, astronomy and physiology.[103]

The

global superpowers.[105] The Napoleonic Wars raged through Europe in the early 1800s,[106] Spain lost most of its colonies in the New World,[107] while Europeans continued expansion into Africa – where European control went from 10% to almost 90% in less than 50 years[108] – and Oceania.[109]

A tenuous

authoritarian regimes and a Second World War, involving almost all of the world's countries.[111]
The war's destruction led to the collapse of most global empires, leading to widespread decolonization.

Contemporary

Main article: Contemporary history

Following the conclusion of the Second World War in 1945, the

USSR and the United States saw a struggle for global influence, including a nuclear arms race and a space race, ending in the collapse of the Soviet Union.[112][113] The current Information Age, spurred by the development of the Internet and Artificial Intelligence systems, sees the world becoming increasingly globalized and interconnected.[114]

Habitat and population

Further information: Human geography and Demography
Population statistics
Long Beach-Santa Ana, Moscow, Shenzhen, Lahore, Bangalore, Paris, Jakarta, Chennai, Lima, Bogota, Bangkok, London

Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to

natural disasters, especially those placed in hazardous locations and with low quality of construction.[120] Grouping and deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of providing protection, accumulating comforts or material wealth, expanding the available food, improving aesthetics, increasing knowledge or enhancing the exchange of resources.[121]

Humans are one of the most

biogeographical realms, although their presence in the Antarctic realm is very limited to research stations and annually there is a population decline in the winter months of this realm. Humans established their nation-states in the other seven realms, such as for example South Africa, India, Russia, Australia, Fiji, United States and Brazil
(each located in a different biogeographical realm).

By using advanced tools and

human population is not, however, uniformly distributed on the Earth's surface, because the population density varies from one region to another, and large stretches of surface are almost completely uninhabited, like Antarctica and vast swathes of the ocean.[122][125] Most humans (61%) live in Asia; the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).[126]

Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as Antarctica, the

robotic spacecraft.[128][129][130] Since the early 20th century, there has been continuous human presence in Antarctica through research stations and, since 2000, in space through habitation on the International Space Station.[131]

Humans and their domesticated animals represent 96% of all mammalian biomass on earth, whereas all wild mammals represent only 4%.[132]

Estimates of the population at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million.[133][134] Around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD.[135] Bubonic plagues, first recorded in the 6th century AD, reduced the population by 50%, with the Black Death killing 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa alone.[136] Human population is believed to have reached one billion in 1800. It has since then increased exponentially, reaching two billion in 1930 and three billion in 1960, four in 1975, five in 1987 and six billion in 1999.[137] It passed seven billion in 2011[138] and passed eight billion in November 2022.[139] It took over two million years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach one billion and only 207 years more to grow to 7 billion.[140] The combined biomass of the carbon of all the humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals.[132]

In 2018, 4.2 billion humans (55%) lived in urban areas, up from 751 million in 1950.

fossil fuels have led to environmental destruction and pollution that significantly contributes to the ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life.[144][145]

Biology

Anatomy and physiology

Main article: Human body
Basic anatomical features of female and male humans. These models have had body hair and male facial hair removed and head hair trimmed.

Most aspects of human physiology are closely

third molars, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.[146]

Humans share with chimpanzees a

smelling, hearing and digesting proteins.[150] While humans have a density of hair follicles comparable to other apes, it is predominantly vellus hair, most of which is so short and wispy as to be practically invisible.[151][152] Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet.[153]

It is estimated that the worldwide average

mass of an adult human is 59 kg (130 lb) for females and 77 kg (170 lb) for males.[157][158] Like many other conditions, body weight and body type are influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals.[159][160]

Humans have a far faster and more accurate

throw than other animals.[161] Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances.[162][150] Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances.[163] Compared to other apes, the human heart produces greater stroke volume and cardiac output and the aorta is proportionately larger.[164][165]

Genetics

Main article: Human genetics
A graphical representation of the standard human karyotype, including both the female (XX) and male (XY) sex chromosomes.

Like most animals, humans are a

genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood.[167][168]

While no humans – not even

monozygotic twins – are genetically identical,[169] two humans on average will have a genetic similarity of 99.5%-99.9%.[170][171] This makes them more homogeneous than other great apes, including chimpanzees.[172][173] This small variation in human DNA compared to many other species suggests a population bottleneck during the Late Pleistocene (around 100,000 years ago), in which the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs.[174][175] The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.[176]

The

mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago.[182][183][184][185]

Life cycle

See also: Childbirth and Life expectancy
human embryo
at 5 weeks

Most

sexual intercourse, but can also occur through assisted reproductive technology procedures.[186] The average gestation period is 38 weeks, but a normal pregnancy can vary by up to 37 days.[187] Embryonic development in the human covers the first eight weeks of development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus.[188] Humans are able to induce early labor or perform a caesarean section if the child needs to be born earlier for medical reasons.[189] In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (7–9 lb) in weight and 47–53 cm (19–21 in) in height at birth.[190][191] However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions.[192]

Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous, with a much higher risk of complications and death.

maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.[197]

Both the mother and the father provide care for human offspring, in contrast to other primates, where parental care is mostly done by the mother.

childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.[202] The lengths of these stages have varied across cultures and time periods but is typified by an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence.[203] Human females undergo menopause and become infertile at around the age of 50.[204] It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.[205][206]

The life span of an individual depends on two major factors, genetics and lifestyle choices.

centenarians (humans of age 100 or older) worldwide.[214]

Human life stages
Infant boy and girl Boy and girl before puberty (children)
Adolescent
male and female 		Adult man and woman
Elderly
man and woman

Diet

Main article: Human nutrition
deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.[217] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture and has led to the development of food science.[218]

Until the development of agriculture, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection.

wild game, which must be hunted and captured in order to be consumed.[219] It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus.[220] Human domestication of wild plants began about 11,700 years ago, leading to the development of agriculture,[221] a gradual process called the Neolithic Revolution.[222] These dietary changes may also have altered human biology; the spread of dairy farming provided a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults.[223][224] The types of food consumed, and how they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.[225][226]

In general, humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat.

developing countries. Worldwide, over one billion people are obese,[232] while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic."[233] Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.[232]

Biological variation

Main article:
sleep patterns.[236]

white, red
.

There is evidence that populations have adapted genetically to various external factors. The genes that allow adult humans to

Bajau.[241]

Human hair ranges in color from

clinally and generally correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area, with darker skin mostly around the equator.[244] Skin darkening may have evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation.[245] Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make.[246] Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.[247][248]

There is relatively little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that occurs is at the individual level.[243][249][250] Much of human variation is continuous, often with no clear points of demarcation.[251][252][253][254] Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are almost as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups.[255][256][257] Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other.[258][259]

Genetic research has demonstrated that human populations native to the

Denisovans than is found in Africa,[180] though Neanderthal admixture into African populations may be underestimated.[263] Furthermore, recent studies have found that populations in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly West Africa, have ancestral genetic variation which predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations. Some of this ancestry is thought to originate from admixture with an unknown archaic hominin that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans.[264][265]

Humans are a

longer life span in almost every population around the world.[276] There are intersex conditions in the human population, however these are rare.[277]

Psychology

Main article: Psychology
Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures

The

cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology
.

Humans have a larger and more developed prefrontal cortex than other primates, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition.[279] This has led humans to proclaim themselves to be more intelligent than any other known species.[280] Objectively defining intelligence is difficult, with other animals adapting senses and excelling in areas that humans are unable to.[281]

There are some traits that, although not strictly unique, do set humans apart from other animals.[282] Humans may be the only animals who have episodic memory and who can engage in "mental time travel".[283] Even compared with other social animals, humans have an unusually high degree of flexibility in their facial expressions.[284] Humans are the only animals known to cry emotional tears.[285] Humans are one of the few animals able to self-recognize in mirror tests[286] and there is also debate over to what extent humans are the only animals with a theory of mind.[287]

Sleep and dreaming

Main articles: Sleep and Dream

Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including reduced memory, fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.[288]

During sleep humans dream, where they experience sensory images and sounds. Dreaming is stimulated by the

self-aware.[292] Dreams can at times make a creative thought occur or give a sense of inspiration.[293]

Consciousness and thought

Main articles: Consciousness and Cognition

Human consciousness, at its simplest, is

awareness of awareness', or self-awareness.[300] There might be different levels or orders of consciousness,[301] or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with different features.[302]

The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses is known as cognition.

Psychologists have developed intelligence tests and the concept of intelligence quotient in order to assess the relative intelligence of human beings and study its distribution among population.[308]

Motivation and emotion

Main articles: Motivation and Emotion
Illustration of grief from Charles Darwin's 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

Human motivation is not yet wholly understood. From a psychological perspective, Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a well-established theory that can be defined as the process of satisfying certain needs in ascending order of complexity.[309] From a more general, philosophical perspective, human motivation can be defined as a commitment to, or withdrawal from, various goals requiring the application of human ability. Furthermore, incentive and preference are both factors, as are any perceived links between incentives and preferences. Volition may also be involved, in which case willpower is also a factor. Ideally, both motivation and volition ensure the selection, striving for, and realization of goals in an optimal manner, a function beginning in childhood and continuing throughout a lifetime in a process known as socialization.[310]

Emotions are

intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity,[315] and motivation. Emotion has a significant influence on human behavior and their ability to learn.[316] Acting on extreme or uncontrolled emotions can lead to social disorder and crime,[317] with studies showing criminals may have a lower emotional intelligence than normal.[318]

Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as joy, interest or contentment, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair.[319] Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some define it as experiencing the feeling of positive emotional affects, while avoiding the negative ones.[320][321] Others see it as an appraisal of life satisfaction or quality of life.[322] Recent research suggests that being happy might involve experiencing some negative emotions when humans feel they are warranted.[323]

Sexuality and love

Main articles: Human sexuality and Love
familial love
for their children.

For humans, sexuality involves

ethical, and religious aspects of life.[324][325] Sexual desire, or libido, is a basic mental state present at the beginning of sexual behavior. Studies show that men desire sex more than women and masturbate more often.[326]

Humans can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of

heterosexual.[328][329] While homosexual behavior occurs in some other animals, only humans and domestic sheep have so far been found to exhibit exclusive preference for same-sex relationships.[328] Most evidence supports nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation,[328] as cultures that are very tolerant of homosexuality do not have significantly higher rates of it.[329][330] Research in neuroscience and genetics suggests that other aspects of human sexuality are biologically influenced as well.[331]

Love most commonly refers to a feeling of strong attraction or emotional

pleasure center, leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement.[333]

Culture

Main articles: Culture and Cultural universal
Human society statistics
Most widely spoken languages
Standard Arabic, Bengali, French, Russian, Portuguese, Urdu
Most practiced religions[335][336]Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, folk religions, Sikhism, Judaism, unaffiliated

Humanity's unprecedented set of intellectual skills were a key factor in the species' eventual technological advancement and concomitant domination of the biosphere.

folk physics" required for competent tool design,[340][341] or cook food in the wild.[342] Teaching and learning preserves the cultural and ethnographic identity of human societies.[343] Other traits and behaviors that are mostly unique to humans include starting fires,[344] phoneme structuring[345] and vocal learning.[346]

Language

Main article: Language
Principal language families of the world (and in some cases geographic groups of families). For greater detail, see Distribution of languages in the world.

While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal.[347] Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open – an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols.[348][349] Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors.[146]

Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, audibly in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and through tactile media such as braille.[350] Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups.[351] There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct.[352]

The arts

Main article:
Deluge tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian

Art is a defining characteristic of humans and there is evidence for a relationship between creativity and language.[361] The earliest evidence of art was shell engravings made by Homo erectus 300,000 years before modern humans evolved.[362] Art attributed to H. sapiens existed at least 75,000 years ago, with jewellery and drawings found in caves in South Africa.[363][364] There are various hypotheses as to why humans have adapted to the arts. These include allowing them to better problem solve issues, providing a means to control or influence other humans, encouraging cooperation and contribution within a society or increasing the chance of attracting a potential mate.[365] The use of imagination developed through art, combined with logic may have given early humans an evolutionary advantage.[361]

Evidence of humans engaging in musical activities predates cave art and so far music has been

ethnic musics; with humans' musical abilities being related to other abilities, including complex social human behaviours.[366] It has been shown that human brains respond to music by becoming synchronized with the rhythm and beat, a process called entrainment.[367] Dance is also a form of human expression found in all cultures[368] and may have evolved as a way to help early humans communicate.[369] Listening to music and observing dance stimulates the orbitofrontal cortex and other pleasure sensing areas of the brain.[370]

Unlike speaking, reading and writing does not come naturally to humans and must be taught.[371] Still, literature has been present before the invention of words and language, with 30,000-year-old paintings on walls inside some caves portraying a series of dramatic scenes.[372] One of the oldest surviving works of literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh, first engraved on ancient Babylonian tablets about 4,000 years ago.[373] Beyond simply passing down knowledge, the use and sharing of imaginative fiction through stories might have helped develop humans' capabilities for communication and increased the likelihood of securing a mate.[374] Storytelling may also be used as a way to provide the audience with moral lessons and encourage cooperation.[372]

Tools and technologies

Main articles: Tool and Technology
fastest train in the world clocking in at 603 km/h (375 mph) as of 2015[375]

Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago.[376] The use and manufacture of tools has been put forward as the ability that defines humans more than anything else[377] and has historically been seen as an important evolutionary step.[378] The technology became much more sophisticated about 1.8 million years ago,[377] with the controlled use of fire beginning around 1 million years ago.[379][380] The wheel and wheeled vehicles appeared simultaneously in several regions some time in the fourth millennium BC.[60] The development of more complex tools and technologies allowed land to be cultivated and animals to be domesticated, thus proving essential in the development of agriculture – what is known as the Neolithic Revolution.[381]

China developed

railways, skyscrapers and many other products.[383] This coincided with the Industrial Revolution, where the invention of automated machines brought major changes to humans' lifestyles.[384] Modern technology is observed as progressing exponentially,[385] with major innovations in the 20th century including: electricity, penicillin, semiconductors, internal combustion engines, the Internet, nitrogen fixing fertilisers, airplanes, computers, automobiles, contraceptive pills, nuclear fission, the green revolution, radio, scientific plant breeding, rockets, air conditioning, television and the assembly line.[386]

Religion and spirituality

Main articles: Religion and Spirituality
Shango, the Orisha of fire, lightning, and thunder, in the Yoruba religion, depicted on horseback

thousand years ago).[391] It may have evolved to play a role in helping enforce and encourage cooperation between humans.[392]

Religion manifests in diverse forms.

ethical teachings.[394] Views on transcendence and immanence vary substantially; traditions variously espouse monism, deism, pantheism, and theism (including polytheism and monotheism).[395]

Although measuring religiosity is difficult,

irreligious, including those with no religious beliefs or no identity with any religion.[399]

Science and philosophy

Main articles: Science and Philosophy
star map
showing the North Polar region. China circa 700.

An aspect unique to humans is their ability to transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and to continually build on this information to develop tools, scientific laws and other advances to pass on further.[400] This accumulated knowledge can be tested to answer questions or make predictions about how the universe functions and has been very successful in advancing human ascendancy.[401]

modern science.[405]

A chain of events and influences led to the development of the

social sciences (e.g., psychology, economics, sociology).[408]

Philosophy is a field of study where humans seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves and the world in which they live.

logic, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics).[413]

Society

Main article: Society
Humans often live in family-based social structures

Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Humans are highly social and tend to live in large complex social groups. They can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation and other factors. The structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies.[414] Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first form of human social organization is thought to have resembled hunter-gatherer band societies.[415]

Gender

Main article: Gender

Human societies typically exhibit

women.[418] Some societies recognise a third gender,[419] or less commonly a fourth or fifth.[420][421] In some other societies, non-binary is used as an umbrella term for a range of gender identities that are not solely male or female.[422]

Gender roles are often associated with a division of

privileges, status, and power, with men enjoying more rights and privileges than women in most societies, both today and in the past.[423] As a social construct,[424] gender roles are not fixed and vary historically within a society. Challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.[425][426] Little is known about gender roles in the earliest human societies. Early modern humans probably had a range of gender roles similar to that of modern cultures from at least the Upper Paleolithic, while the Neanderthals were less sexually dimorphic and there is evidence that the behavioural difference between males and females was minimal.[427]

Kinship

Main article: Kinship

All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance.[428] All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations is prohibited, and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations.[429]

Ethnicity

Main article:
Ethnic group

Human ethnic groups are a social category that

social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.[434][435][436]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government and Politics
The United Nations headquarters in New York City, which houses one of the world's largest political organizations

As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities.[437] Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages.[438] This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances.[439]

Governments create

alliances; the largest of these is the United Nations, with 193 member states.[442]

Trade and economics

Main articles: Trade and Economics
trade routes
(blue)

Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids.

cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals.[444][445] Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian.[446] The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods.[447]

Early human

electronic money.[449] Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people.[450] There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population.[451]

Conflict

Further information: War and Violence
American troops landing at Normandy, WWII.

Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but have an increased preference for killing adults, infanticide being more common among other primates.[452] Phylogenetic analysis predicts that 2% of early H. sapiens would be murdered, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times.[453] There is great variation in violence between human populations, with rates of homicide about 0.01% in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence.[454]

The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought holds that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and has appeared due to changing social conditions.[455] While not settled, current evidence indicates warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that.[455] War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war.[456] War casualty data is less reliable for pre-medieval times, especially global figures. But compared with any period over the past 600 years, the last ~80 years (post 1946), has seen a very significant drop in global military and civilian death rates due to armed conflict. [457]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The world population and population density statistics are updated automatically from a template that uses the CIA World Factbook and United Nations World Population Prospects.[115][116]
  2. ^ Cities with over 10 million inhabitants as of 2018.[117]
  3. ^ Traditionally this has been explained by conflicting evolutionary pressures involved in bipedalism and encephalization (called the obstetrical dilemma), but recent research suggest it might be more complicated than that.[194][195]

References

  1. OCLC 62265494
    .
  2. JSTOR 4065043
    .
  3. IEW
    . s.v. "g'hðem" pp. 414–116.
  4. ^ "Homo". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House. 23 September 2008. Archived from the original on 27 September 2008.
  5. ^ a b Barras, Colin (11 January 2016). "We don't know which species should be classed as 'human'". BBC. Archived from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  6. JSTOR 4065043. Archived
    from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  7. s.v.
    "human".
  8. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived
    from the original on 22 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017. Definition 2: a man belonging to a particular category (as by birth, residence, membership, or occupation) – usually used in combination
  9. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Archived
    from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
  10. ^ "Misconceptions about evolution – Understanding Evolution". University of California, Berkeley. 19 September 2021. Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
  11. ^ "Concept of Personhood". University of Missouri School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
  12. S2CID 240125199
    . Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  13. S2CID 2112935
    .
  14. PMID 9066793
    .
  15. ^ MacAndrew A. "Human Chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes". Evolution pages. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2006.
  16. ^ McNulty, Kieran P. (2016). "Hominin Taxonomy and Phylogeny: What's In A Name?". Nature Education Knowledge. Archived from the original on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  17. S2CID 31979188
    .
  18. S2CID 43116946
    .
  19. S2CID 20267830
    .
  20. ^
    PMID 25739410
    .
  21. S2CID 49670311
    .
  22. S2CID 256771372. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  23. S2CID 220100436
    .
  24. S2CID 26693109
    .
  25. actionbioscience. Washington, DC: American Institute of Biological Sciences. Archived from the original
    on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
  26. S2CID 4387442
    .
  27. PMID 29545508
    .
  28. S2CID 140098861
    .
  29. PMID 25770088
    .
  30. S2CID 20296624. Archived
    from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
  31. ^ Rincon P (27 January 2011). "Humans 'left Africa much earlier'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 9 August 2012.
  32. S2CID 205257212
    .
  33. ^ Lowe DJ (2008). "Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the impacts of volcanism on early Maori society: an update" (PDF). University of Waikato. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  34. PMID 22552074
    .
  35. ^
    PMID 21179161
    .
  36. PMID 23627222. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 24 August 2018.
  37. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3
    .
  38. S2CID 14329491
    .
  39. PMID 20439435
    .
  40. PMID 21868630
    .
  41. PMID 23900811
    . Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  42. ISBN 978-0-393-97854-4
    .
  43. ISBN 978-0-12-802652-6. Archived
    from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  44. ISBN 978-0-500-29335-5
    .
  45. OCLC 855969933. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  46. ISBN 978-0-12-805247-1
    .
  47. S2CID 133660098. Archived
    from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  48. PMID 19383791
    .
  49. S2CID 10644185
    .
  50. PMID 31114806
    .
  51. S2CID 149402650. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  52. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007
    .
  53. ISBN 978-1-285-66153-7
    . Retrieved 11 July 2015.
  54. ISBN 978-1-285-98299-1
    . Retrieved 11 July 2015.
  55. ISBN 978-1-893554-57-3
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  56. ISBN 978-0-19-518831-8
    .
  57. S2CID 216180781
    .
  58. S2CID 4458743
    .
  59. ISBN 978-1-136-21911-5
    .
  60. ^
    S2CID 115685157. Archived
    from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  61. S2CID 144840498. Archived
    from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  62. ISBN 978-1-4051-8988-0. Archived
    from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  63. ISBN 978-0-521-40340-5
    .
  64. ^ Robson E (2008). Mathematics in ancient Iraq: A social history. Princeton University Press. pp. xxi.
  65. S2CID 109998651. Archived
    from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  66. S2CID 51954326
    .
  67. ISBN 978-0-520-20222-1
    .
  68. S2CID 53393440
    .
  69. PMID 28783727
    .
  70. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8
    .
  71. S2CID 128460316
    .
  72. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029
    .
  73. ISBN 978-1-4419-6633-9
    .
  74. ISBN 978-0-429-76315-1
    .
  75. ^ Beard M (2 October 2015). "Why ancient Rome matters to the modern world". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  76. ^ Vidergar AB (11 June 2015). "Stanford scholar debunks long-held beliefs about economic growth in ancient Greece". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  77. S2CID 219281856
    .
  78. S2CID 164417025. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  79. JSTOR 45163415. Archived
    from the original on 28 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  80. ISSN 0190-0692
    .
  81. JSTOR 599886. Archived
    from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  82. S2CID 229716130. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  83. doi:10.3390/cli6040090
    .
  84. ISBN 978-0-19-532819-6
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  85. ^
    ISBN 978-3-319-24774-8
    .
  86. ^ Vidal-Nanquet P (1987). The Harper Atlas of World History. Harper & Row Publishers. p. 76.
  87. ISBN 978-1-84983-770-5
    .
  88. ^ Adam King (2002). "Mississippian Period: Overview". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 19 August 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
  89. ISBN 0-521-31896-3
    .
  90. ISBN 978-1-86189-971-2
    .
  91. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. Archived
    from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  92. ^ Canela SA, Graves MW. "The Tongan Maritime Expansion: A Case in the Evolutionary Ecology of Social Complexity". Asian Perspectives. 37 (2): 135–164.
  93. ISBN 978-90-04-39165-9. Archived
    from the original on 2 May 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  94. ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7. Archived
    from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  95. ^ Mosca MW (2010). "CHINA'S LAST EMPIRE: The Great Qing". Pacific Affairs. 83. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  96. ISSN 2355-7893. Archived
    from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  97. OCLC 893909816. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  98. OCLC 859536800. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  99. S2CID 56216309. Archived
    from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  100. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00116-5
    .
  101. S2CID 161321949. Archived
    from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  102. ISBN 978-0-230-29778-4
    .
  103. PMID 25457642
    .
  104. ^ "Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century". National Academy of Engineering. Archived from the original on 6 April 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  105. OCLC 299054528. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  106. ISSN 1740-0228. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  107. JSTOR 2506251. Archived
    from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  108. ^ David S (2011). "British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'". BBC. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  109. S2CID 162259092
    .
  110. OCLC 794136314. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  111. ISBN 0-300-15355-4
    .
  112. ISSN 0096-3402
    .
  113. S2CID 5482851. Archived
    from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  114. S2CID 133030709
    .
  115. CIA. 17 May 2016. Archived
    from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
  116. ^ "World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2017. p. 2&17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  117. ^ "The World's Cities in 2018" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2018.
  118. OCLC 953735302. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  119. ^ "How People Modify the Environment" (PDF). Westerville City School District. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  120. ^ "Natural disasters and the urban poor" (PDF). World Bank. October 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017.
  121. OCLC 889953315. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  122. ^
    OCLC 70215878. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  123. PMID 20823373
    .
  124. ^ O'Neil D. "Human Biological Adaptability; Overview". Palomar College. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  125. ^ "Population distribution and density". BBC. Archived from the original on 23 June 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  126. S2CID 25834286
    .
  127. ^
    Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. 23: 819. Archived
    from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  128. ^ "Mission to Mars: Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity Rover". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  129. ^ "Touchdown! Rosetta's Philae probe lands on comet". European Space Agency. 12 November 2014. Archived from the original on 22 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  130. ^ "NEAR-Shoemaker". NASA. Archived from the original on 26 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  131. ^ Kraft R (11 December 2010). "JSC celebrates ten years of continuous human presence aboard the International Space Station". JSC Features. Johnson Space Center. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  132. ^
    PMID 29784790
    .
  133. ISBN 978-2-7605-1588-8
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  134. ISBN 978-0-8221-0166-6
    .
  135. ^ Harl KW (1998). "Population estimates of the Roman Empire". Tulane.edu. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  136. PMID 15031959
    .
  137. ^ "World's population reaches six billion". BBC News. 5 August 1999. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2008.
  138. ^ United Nations. "World population to reach 8 billion on 15 November 2022". United Nations. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
  139. S2CID 253764233
    . Retrieved 26 January 2023.
  140. ^ "World Population to Hit Milestone With Birth of 7 Billionth Person". PBS NewsHour. 27 October 2011. Archived from the original on 24 September 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  141. ^ a b "68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). 16 May 2018. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  142. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2006.
  143. PMID 24497513
    .
  144. ^ Stokstad E (5 May 2019). "Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature". Science. AAAS. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021. For the first time at a global scale, the report has ranked the causes of damage. Topping the list, changes in land use – principally agriculture – that have destroyed habitat. Second, hunting and other kinds of exploitation. These are followed by climate change, pollution, and invasive species, which are being spread by trade and other activities. Climate change will likely overtake the other threats in the next decades, the authors note. Driving these threats are the growing human population, which has doubled since 1970 to 7.6 billion, and consumption. (Per capita of use of materials is up 15% over the past 5 decades.)
  145. PMID 16829570
    .
  146. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7148-1676-0
    .
  147. ^ Weisberger, Mindy (March 23, 2024). "Why don't humans have tails? Scientists find answers in an unlikely place". CNN. Archived from the original on March 24, 2024. Retrieved March 24, 2024.
  148. ISBN 978-0-202-36656-2
    .
  149. doi:10.1016/S1579-2129(08)60042-7
    .
  150. ^ a b O'Neil D. "Humans". Primates. Palomar College. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  151. ^ "How to be Human: The reason we are so scarily hairy". New Scientist. 2017. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  152. PMID 23900811
    .
  153. ^ Kirchweger G (2 February 2001). "The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White". Evolution: Library. PBS. Archived from the original on 16 February 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  154. ^ Roser M, Appel C, Ritchie H (8 October 2013). "Human Height". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  155. ^ "Senior Citizens Do Shrink – Just One of the Body Changes of Aging". News. Senior Journal. Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  156. PMID 14527631
    .
  157. ^ "Human weight". Articleworld.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  158. ^ Schlessingerman A (2003). "Mass Of An Adult". The Physics Factbook: An Encyclopedia of Scientific Essays. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 31 December 2017.
  159. ISBN 978-1-59745-400-1
    . Retrieved 5 April 2009.
  160. PMID 10927998
    .
  161. S2CID 90757192
    .
  162. ^ Parker-Pope T (27 October 2009). "The Human Body Is Built for Distance". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 November 2015.
  163. ^ John B. "What is the role of sweating glands in balancing body temperature when running a marathon?". Livestrong.com. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  164. PMID 31527253
    .
  165. PMID 37100851
    .
  166. S2CID 36686283
    .
  167. PMID 6007033
    .
  168. PMID 8741866
    .
  169. S2CID 230986741
    .
  170. ^ "Genetic – Understanding Human Genetic Variation". Human Genetic Variation. National Institute of Health (NIH). Archived from the original on 25 August 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013. Between any two humans, the amount of genetic variation – biochemical individuality – is about 0.1%.
  171. PMID 17803354
    .
  172. ^
    PMID 16175499
    .
  173. ^ "Chimps show much greater genetic diversity than humans". Media. University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
  174. PMID 9465125
    .
  175. PMID 9096352
    .
  176. ^ Wade N (7 March 2007). "Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  177. S2CID 38355565
    .
  178. S2CID 231882262
    .
  179. PMID 20811451
    .
  180. ^
    PMID 32193295
    . Populations in central and southern Africa, the Americas, and Oceania each harbor tens to hundreds of thousands of private, common genetic variants. Most of these variants arose as new mutations rather than through archaic introgression, except in Oceanian populations, where many private variants derive from Denisovan admixture.
  181. PMID 20441615
    .
  182. S2CID 4285418
    .
  183. PMID 19500773
    .
  184. ^ "University of Leeds | News > Technology > New 'molecular clock' aids dating of human migration history". 20 August 2017. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017.
  185. PMID 23908239
    .
  186. ISBN 978-0-470-65845-1
    .
  187. PMID 23922246
    .
  188. ISBN 978-0-7817-6237-3
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022. The fetal stage is from the beginning of the 9th week after fertilization and continues until birth
  189. ^ World Health Organization (November 2014). "Preterm birth Fact sheet N°363". who.int. Archived from the original on 7 March 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  190. S2CID 46810955
    .
  191. ^ "What is the average baby length? Growth chart by month". www.medicalnewstoday.com. 18 March 2019. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  192. PMID 15024783
    .
  193. ISSN 1096-8644
    .
  194. ^
    S2CID 195761874
    .
  195. ^ Barras C (22 December 2016). "The real reasons why childbirth is so painful and dangerous". BBC.
  196. developed countries
    .
  197. PMID 10871588
    .
  198. ISBN 978-0-19-958696-7
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  199. ISBN 978-0-495-60037-4
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  200. ISBN 978-1-284-12501-6
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022. The changes that occur during puberty usually happen in an ordered sequence, beginning with thelarche (breast development) at around age 10 or 11, followed by adrenarche (growth of pubic hair due to androgen stimulation), peak height velocity, and finally menarche (the onset of menses), which usually occurs around age 12 or 13.
  201. ISBN 978-1-4833-6475-9
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022. On average, the onset of puberty is about 18 months earlier for girls (usually starting around the age of 10 or 11 and lasting until they are 15 to 17) than for boys (who usually begin puberty at about the age of 11 to 12 and complete it by the age of 16 to 17, on average).
  202. ^ Mintz S (1993). "Life stages". Encyclopedia of American Social History. 3: 7–33.
  203. PMID 25538878
    .
  204. PMID 18495681
    .
  205. ISBN 978-0-465-03127-6
    .
  206. S2CID 1665503
    .
  207. ^ Marziali C (7 December 2010). "Reaching Toward the Fountain of Youth". USC Trojan Family Magazine. Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 7 December 2010.
  208. ^ Kalben BB (2002). "Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex". Society of Actuaries. Archived from the original on 1 July 2013.
  209. ^ "Life expectancy at birth, female (years)". World Bank. 2018. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
  210. ^ "Life expectancy at birth, male (years)". World Bank. 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
  211. ISBN 978-92-1-126439-5. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  212. ^ "Human Development Report 2019" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  213. ^ "The World Factbook". U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2005.
  214. ^ "Chapter 1: Setting the Scene" (PDF). UNFPA. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
  215. PMID 2697806
    .
  216. pongids
    approximately 7 million years ago, the available evidence shows that all species of hominins ate an omnivorous diet composed of minimally processed, wild-plant, and animal foods.
  217. PMID 12778049
    .
  218. ^
    PMID 28105723
    .
  219. PMID 15699220
    .
  220. PMID 12691181
    .
  221. PMID 37018195
    .
  222. PMID 36688395
    .}
  223. PMID 19656837
    .
  224. PMID 9299882
    .
  225. ^ Gibbons A. "The Evolution of Diet". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 August 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  226. ^ Ritchie H, Roser M (20 August 2017). "Diet Compositions". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  227. ^ Lieberson AD (2004). "How Long Can a Person Survive without Food?". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  228. ^ Spector D (9 March 2018). "Here's how many days a person can survive without water". Business Insider Australia. Archived from the original on 26 June 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  229. ^ Holmes J. "Losing 25,000 to Hunger Every Day". United Nations. Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  230. ^ Mai HJ (2020). "U.N. Warns Number Of People Starving To Death Could Double Amid Pandemic". NPR. Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  231. S2CID 2569153
    .
  232. ^
    S2CID 208791491
    .
  233. PMID 19700042
    .
  234. PMID 15463992
    .
  235. ^ O'Neil D. "Adapting to Climate Extremes". Human Biological Adaptability. Palomar College. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  236. PMID 28873402
    .
  237. S2CID 20415396
    .
  238. PMID 21427751
    .
  239. S2CID 28191911
    .
  240. S2CID 34882477
    .
  241. PMID 29677510
    .
  242. S2CID 224795768
    .
  243. ^ a b Roberts D (2011). Fatal Invention. London & New York: The New Press.
  244. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955
    .
  245. PMID 20445093
    .
  246. PMID 10896812. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 14 January 2012.
  247. PMID 10733465
    .
  248. ^ Robin A (1991). Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  249. ^ "The Science Behind the Human Genome Project". Human Genome Project. US Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013. Almost all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people.
  250. ^ O'Neil D. "Ethnicity and Race: Overview". Palomar College. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  251. PMID 15507998
    .
  252. ^ O'Neil D. "Models of Classification". Modern Human Variation. Palomar College. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  253. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955
    .
  254. doi:10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.205
    .
  255. ^ "Genetic – Understanding Human Genetic Variation". Human Genetic Variation. National Institute of Health (NIH). Archived from the original on 25 August 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013. In fact, research results consistently demonstrate that about 85 percent of all human genetic variation exists within human populations, whereas about only 15 percent of variation exists between populations.
  256. ^ Goodman A. "Interview with Alan Goodman". Race Power of and Illusion. PBS. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  257. ^ Marks J (2010). "Ten facts about human variation". In Muehlenbein M (ed.). Human Evolutionary Biology (PDF). New York: Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
  258. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955
    . genetic evidence [demonstrate] that strong levels of natural selection acted about 1.2 mya to produce darkly pigmented skin in early members of the genus Homo
  259. ^ O'Neil D. "Overview". Modern Human Variation. Palomar College. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
  260. PMID 10712212
    .
  261. Science Daily. 19 July 2007. Archived
    from the original on 4 November 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
  262. PMID 17637668
    .
  263. S2CID 210955842
    .
  264. PMID 32193295
    . An analysis of archaic sequences in modern populations identifies ancestral genetic variation in African populations that likely predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations.
  265. PMID 32095519
    . Our analyses of site frequency spectra indicate that these populations derive 2 to 19% of their genetic ancestry from an archaic population that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans.
  266. ISBN 978-1-4292-3252-4
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  267. ISBN 978-0-521-87948-4
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  268. ISBN 978-1-108-49985-9
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  269. PMID 15454336
    .
  270. PMID 15544194. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 23 February 2011.
  271. S2CID 206772211
    .
  272. PMID 29224088
    .
  273. PMID 30175213
    .
  274. ^ Easter C. "Sex Linked". National Human Genome Research Institute. Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
  275. S2CID 32562654
    .
  276. ^ "Gender, women, and health". Reports from WHO 2002–2005. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013.
  277. S2CID 33795209
    .
  278. ^ "3-D Brain Anatomy". The Secret Life of the Brain. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2005.
  279. S2CID 149581944
    .
  280. ISSN 2079-3200
    .
  281. ^ "Humans not smarter than animals, just different, experts say". phys.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  282. ^ Robson D. "We've got human intelligence all wrong". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  283. ^ Owen J (26 February 2015). "Many Animals – Including Your Dog – May Have Horrible Short-Term Memories". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  284. PMID 11786989
    .
  285. ^ Moisse K (5 January 2011). "Tears in Her Eyes: A Turnoff for Guys?". ABC News (American). Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  286. ^ Deleniv S (2018). "The 'me' illusion: How your brain conjures up your sense of self". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  287. ^ Beck J (2019). "Can We Really Know What Animals Are Thinking?". Snopes. Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  288. PMID 19896872
    .
  289. ^ Ann L (27 January 2005). "HowStuffWorks "Dreams: Stages of Sleep"". Science.howstuffworks.com. Archived from the original on 15 May 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
  290. S2CID 205505278
    .
  291. ^ Empson J (2002). Sleep and dreaming (3rd ed.). New York: Palgrave/St. Martin's Press.
  292. ^ Lite J (29 July 2010). "How Can You Control Your Dreams?". Scientific America. Archived from the original on 2 February 2015.
  293. ^ Domhoff W (2002). The scientific study of dreams. APA Press.
  294. ^ "Consciousness". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 7 September 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
  295. ^ van Gulick R (2004). "Consciousness". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  296. ISBN 978-0-470-75145-9
    .
  297. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7
    .
  298. S2CID 246244859
    .
  299. ISBN 0-618-05707-2. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  300. S2CID 10241157
    .
  301. ^ Carruthers P (15 August 2011). "Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
  302. ^ Antony MV (2001). "Is consciousness ambiguous?". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 8: 19–44.
  303. ^ "Cognition". Lexico. Oxford University Press and Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  304. S2CID 189379814
    .
  305. ^ "American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms". Apa.org. Archived from the original on 8 July 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
  306. ^ "Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan". www.apa.org. Archived from the original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  307. ISBN 978-1-138-84695-1
    .
  308. ISBN 978-0-12-657410-4
    .
  309. ^ McLeod S (20 March 2020). "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs". Simplypsychology.org. Simply Scholar Limited. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2020. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.
  310. ISBN 978-3-319-65093-7
    .
  311. S2CID 8504450
    .
  312. ISBN 978-0-19-508944-8
    . Emotional processing, but not emotions, can occur unconsciously.
  313. S2CID 24365776
    . Emotion is any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content (pleasure/displeasure)
  314. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2
    .
  315. PMID 10202807
    .
  316. PMID 28883804
    .
  317. ^ Van Gelder JL (November 2016). "Emotions in Criminal Decision Making". In Wright R (ed.). Oxford Bibliographies in Criminology. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  318. PMID 26257484
    .
  319. PMID 11315248
    .
  320. doi:10.11612/resphil.2013.90.3.5
    .
  321. ^ Haybron DM (13 April 2014). "Happiness and Its Discontents". The Opinion Pages. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2022. I would suggest that when we talk about happiness, we are actually referring, much of the time, to a complex emotional phenomenon. Call it emotional well-being. Happiness as emotional well-being concerns your emotions and moods, more broadly your emotional condition as a whole. To be happy is to inhabit a favorable emotional state.... On this view, we can think of happiness, loosely, as the opposite of anxiety and depression. Being in good spirits, quick to laugh and slow to anger, at peace and untroubled, confident and comfortable in your own skin, engaged, energetic and full of life.
  322. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5
    .
  323. ^ "Secret to happiness may include more unpleasant emotions: Research contradicts idea that people should always seek pleasure to be happy". ScienceDaily. American Psychological Association. 14 August 2017. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  324. ^
    ISBN 978-1-284-08154-1
    . Retrieved 21 June 2017. Human sexuality is a part of your total personality. It involves the interrelationship of biological, psychological, and sociocultural dimensions. [...] It is the total of our physical, emotional, and spiritual responses, thoughts, and feelings.
  325. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7890-2671-2
    .
  326. S2CID 147235090
    .
  327. ^ "Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  328. ^
    PMID 27113562
    .
  329. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-975296-6
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  330. ISBN 978-0-19-983882-0
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  331. ISBN 978-0-465-00802-5
    .
  332. ISBN 978-0-06-095828-2
    .
  333. ^ "Love, Actually: The science behind lust, attraction, and companionship". Science in the News. 14 February 2017. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  334. ^ "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  335. ^ a b World. The World Factbook (Report). Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  336. ^ "The Changing Global Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  337. ISBN 978-0-316-48489-3
    . Homo sapiens and our close relatives may have some unique physical attributes, such as our dextrous hands, upright walking and resonant voices. However, these on their own cannot explain our success. They went together with our intelligence...
  338. ^ Goldman JG (2012). "Pay attention… time for lessons at animal school". bbc.com. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  339. PMID 30474053
    .
  340. S2CID 18437970
    .
  341. S2CID 18277620
    . In short, the evidence to date that animals have an understanding of folk physics is at best mixed.
  342. ^ Lemonick MD (3 June 2015). "Chimps Can't Cook, But Maybe They'd Like To". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  343. ISSN 1877-0428
    .
  344. ^ McKie R (9 October 2018). "The Book of Humans by Adam Rutherford review – a pithy homage to our species". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  345. ^ Nicholls H (29 June 2015). "Babblers speak to the origin of language". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  346. ^ Dasgupta S (2015). "Can any animals talk and use language like humans?". bbc.com. Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 22 April 2020. Most animals are not vocal learners.
  347. ^ Scott-Phillips TC, Blythe RA (18 September 2013). "Why is language unique to humans?". Royal Society. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  348. PMID 28738867
    .
  349. ISSN 0262-4079
    .
  350. ISBN 978-1-137-58746-6
    .
  351. ^ "Culture | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples". www.un.org. 5 June 2015. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  352. ISBN 978-0-8160-3388-1
    .
  353. ISBN 978-0-9833867-5-9
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  354. ^ "Types of Literary Arts and Their Understanding – bookfestivalscotland.com". Bookfestival Scotland. 2020. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  355. ^ "Bachelor of Performing Arts" (PDF). University of Otago. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  356. PMID 30405470
    .
  357. ^ "Culinary arts – How cooking can be an art". Northern Contemporary Art. 21 October 2019. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  358. ^ Smuts A (1 January 2005). "Are Video Games Art?". Contemporary Aesthetics (Journal Archive). 3 (1). Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  359. PMID 26371092
    .
  360. S2CID 151443044
    .
  361. ^
    PMID 19900185
    .
  362. S2CID 4461751
    .
  363. ^ St Fleur N (12 September 2018). "Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  364. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived
    from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  365. ^ Dissanayake E (2008). "The Arts after Darwin: Does Art have an Origin and Adaptive Function?". In Zijlmans K, van Damme W (eds.). World Art Studies: Exploring Concepts and Approaches. Amsterdam: Valiz. pp. 241–263.
  366. ^
    PMID 25020016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (link
    )
  367. S2CID 4727529
    .
  368. S2CID 206224849
    .
  369. ^ Chow D (22 March 2010). "Why Do Humans Dance?". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  370. ^ Krakauer J (26 September 2008). "Why do we like to dance – And move to the beat?". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  371. ^ Prior KS (21 June 2013). "How Reading Makes Us More Human". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  372. ^ a b Puchner M. "How stories have shaped the world". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  373. ISBN 978-0-19-283589-5
    .
  374. JSTOR 3685504. Archived
    from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  375. ^ McCurry J (21 April 2015). "Japan's Maglev Train Breaks World Speed Record with 600 km/h Test Run". The Guardian (U.S. ed.). New York. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  376. PMID 8009220
    .
  377. ^ a b Choi CQ (11 November 2009). "Human Evolution: The Origin of Tool Use". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  378. PMID 24782809
    .
  379. PMID 22474385
    .
  380. PMID 27216521
    .
  381. ^ Damiano J (2018). "Neolithic Era Tools: Inventing a New Age". MagellanTV. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  382. OCLC 671710733. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  383. ^ Schifman J (9 July 2018). "The Entire History of Steel". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  384. ^ Wilkinson, Freddie (9 January 2020). "Industrial Revolution and Technology". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  385. ^ Roser, Max; Ritchie, Hannah (11 May 2013). "Technological Progress". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  386. ^ Fallows J (23 October 2013). "The 50 Greatest Breakthroughs Since the Wheel". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  387. ^
    JSTOR 24460821. Archived
    from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  388. PMID 12171998
    .
  389. ^ King BJ (29 March 2016). "Chimpanzees: Spiritual But Not Religious?". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  390. S2CID 183474917. Archived
    from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  391. PMID 19892955
    .
  392. ISSN 1090-5138. Archived
    from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  393. S2CID 145686249
    .
  394. PMID 25528346
    .
  395. ISBN 978-3-11-069834-3
    .
  396. S2CID 25349208. Archived
    from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  397. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived
    from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  398. ^ Hackett C, McClendon D (2017). "Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 24 November 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  399. ^ "The Changing Global Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 5 April 2017. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  400. ^ Di Christina, Mariette (September 2018). "A Very Human Story: Why Our Species Is Special". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  401. ^ Andersen H, Hepburn B (2020). "Scientific Method". In Zalta EN (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  402. S2CID 4394696
    .
  403. OCLC 883392276. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  404. OCLC 779676. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  405. OCLC 615209781. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  406. ^ Hansson SO (2017). Zalta EN (ed.). "Science and Pseudo-Science". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  407. ISBN 978-1-107-01116-8
    .
  408. ^ "Branches of Science" (PDF). University of Chicago. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  409. ^ "What is Philosophy?". Department of Philosophy. Florida State University. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  410. ^ "Philosophy". Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  411. JSTOR 2102800. Archived
    from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  412. ^ Messerly JG (25 March 2016). "What is the Difference Between Philosophy, Science, and Religion?". ieet.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  413. S2CID 64796132
    .
  414. ^ Schizzerotto A. "Social Stratification" (PDF). University of Trento. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  415. OCLC 1082411117
    .
  416. ISBN 978-1-4106-0524-5. Archived
    from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  417. ^ Blackstone, Amy (2003). "Gender Roles and Society". In Miller, Julia R.; Lerner, Richard M.; Schiamberg, Lawrence B. (eds.). Human Ecology: An Encyclopedia of Children, Families, Communities, and Environments. Sociology School Faculty Scholarship. Santa barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 335. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  418. ISBN 978-1483384276
    . Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary – the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization.
  419. ISBN 978-1-942130-52-9
    . Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  420. ISBN 978-0-942299-82-3
    .
  421. ^ Graham, Sharyn (April–June 2001). "Sulawesi's fifth gender". Inside Indonesia. Archived from the original on 26 November 2014.
  422. S2CID 29985722. Archived
    from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  423. ^ Ananthaswamy, Anil; Douglas, Kate. "The origins of sexism: How men came to rule 12,000 years ago". New Scientist. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
  424. ^ "What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 30 January 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
  425. ISBN 978-0-7637-5641-3
    . Retrieved 3 January 2018.
  426. doi:10.1093/oxrep/gri024
    .
  427. S2CID 229399965. Archived
    from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  428. ^ "The Nature of Kinship: Overview". www2.palomar.edu. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  429. PMID 31964846
    .
  430. OCLC 829678440. Archived
    from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  431. ^ People J, Bailey G (2010). Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (9th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage learning. p. 389. In essence, an ethnic group is a named social category of people based on perceptions of shared social experience or one's ancestors' experiences. Members of the ethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditions and history that distinguish them from other groups. Ethnic group identity has a strong psychological or emotional component that divides the people of the world into opposing categories of 'us' and 'them.' In contrast to social stratification, which divides and unifies people along a series of horizontal axes based on socioeconomic factors, ethnic identities divide and unify people along a series of vertical axes. Thus, ethnic groups, at least theoretically, cut across socioeconomic class differences, drawing members from all strata of the population.
  432. ^ Blackmore E (22 February 2019). "Race and ethnicity: How are they different?". Culture. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  433. ISSN 1094-2939
    .
  434. ^ Smith AD (1999). Myths and Memories of the Nation. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–7.
  435. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00271.x
    .
  436. ISBN 978-1-4129-0101-7
    .
  437. ISBN 978-0-520-24476-4
    .
  438. ^ Cronk L, Leech BL (20 September 2017). "How Did Humans Get So Good at Politics?". SAPIENS. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  439. S2CID 4993139
    .
  440. ^ Melina R (14 February 2011). "What Are the Different Types of Governments?". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  441. ^ "Democracy Index 2021: less than half the world lives in a democracy". The Economist Democracy Index. Economist Intelligence Unit. February 10, 2022.
  442. ^ Jeannie Evers (23 December 2012). "international organization". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  443. ISSN 0167-2681
    .
  444. ^ Gibbons J (11 August 2015). "Why did Neanderthals go extinct?". Smithsonian Insider. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  445. ^ University of Wyoming (24 March 2005). "Did Use of Free Trade Cause Neanderthal Extinction?". www.newswise.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  446. ^ Polianskaya A (15 March 2018). "Humans may have been trading with each for as long as 300,000 years". inews.co.uk. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  447. ^ Henriques M. "How spices changed the ancient world". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  448. ^ Strauss IE (26 February 2016). "The Myth of the Barter Economy". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  449. ^ a b "The History of Money". www.pbs.org. 26 October 1996. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  450. ^ "Why do we need economists and the study of economics?". Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. July 2000. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  451. ^ Sheskin M. "The inequality delusion: Why we've got the wealth gap all wrong". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  452. ^ Yong E (28 September 2016). "Humans: Unusually Murderous Mammals, Typically Murderous Primates". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  453. S2CID 4454927
    .
  454. S2CID 4459560. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  455. ^ a b Ferguson RB (1 September 2018). "War Is Not Part of Human Nature". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  456. ^ Ferguson N (September–October 2006). "The Next War of the World". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  457. ^ Beauchamp, Zack (June 23, 2015). "600 years of war and peace, in one amazing chart". Vox.

External links

Listen to this article (1 hour and 16 minutes)
Spoken Wikipedia icon
Audio help · More spoken articles
)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human&oldid=1220332191"
This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article: Humans. Articles is available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license; additional terms may apply.Privacy Policy