Hurricane Floyd
Meteorological history | |
---|---|
Formed | September 7, 1999 |
Extratropical | September 17, 1999 |
Dissipated | September 19, 1999 |
Category 4 major hurricane | |
1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS) | |
Highest winds | 155 mph (250 km/h) |
Lowest pressure | 921 mbar (hPa); 27.20 inHg |
Overall effects | |
Fatalities | 85 |
Damage | $6.5 billion (1999 USD) |
Areas affected | Lucayan Archipelago, East Coast of the United States, Atlantic Canada |
IBTrACS | |
Part of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season | |
Effects
Other wikis |
Hurricane Floyd was a very powerful
Floyd was once forecast to strike Florida, but turned away. Instead, Floyd struck the Bahamas at peak strength, causing heavy damage. It then moved parallel to the
The hurricane produced torrential rainfall in Eastern North Carolina, adding more rain to an area already hit by Hurricane Dennis just weeks earlier. The rains caused widespread flooding over a period of several weeks; nearly every river basin in the eastern part of the state exceeded 500-year flood levels. In total, Floyd was responsible for 85 fatalities and $6.5 billion (1999 USD) in damage. Due to the destruction, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Floyd and replaced it with Franklin.
Meteorological history
Floyd originated from a
Early on September 8, the depression became sufficiently well-organized for the NHC to upgrade it to Tropical Storm Floyd.
Over a 24-hour period from September 12–13, Hurricane Floyd
At its peak, tropical storm-force winds spanned a diameter of 580 mi (930 km), making Floyd one of the largest Atlantic hurricanes of its intensity ever recorded.[1] For about 12 hours, Hurricane Floyd remained just below Category 5 status while crossing The Bahamas. Late on September 13, the eye of the hurricane passed just north of San Salvador and Cat Islands. On the next day, the hurricane made landfalls on Eleuthera and Abaco islands.[2] During this time, Floyd underwent an eyewall replacement cycle, in which an outer eyewall developed, causing the original eye to dissipate near Eleuthera. This caused a temporary drop in sustained winds to Category 3 status, only for Floyd to restrengthen briefly to a Category 4 on September 15.[2]
While approaching the southeastern United States, a strong mid- to upper-level trough eroded the western portion of the high-pressure ridge, which had been steering Floyd for several days. The break in the ridge caused Floyd to turn to the northwest. After the hurricane completed its eyewall replacement cycle, Floyd had a large 57 mi (93 km) eye. The large storm gradually weakened after exiting The Bahamas, due to drier air and increasing wind shear. On September 15, Floyd paralleled the east coast of Florida about 110 mi (170 km) offshore, as it accelerated to the north and north-northeast. At around 06:30 UTC on September 16, Hurricane Floyd made landfall in Cape Fear, North Carolina with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h), a Category 2. The eyewall had largely dissipated by that time. Continuing northeastward along a cold front, Floyd moved through eastern North Carolina and southeastern Virginia, weakening to tropical storm status by late on September 16. The storm gradually lost its tropical characteristics as it quickly moved through the Delmarva Peninsula, eastern New Jersey, Long Island, and New England. Late on September 17, Floyd transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near the coast of southern Maine. The storm continued to the northeast, passing through New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland on September 18. On the following day, a larger extratropical storm over the North Atlantic Ocean absorbed what was once Hurricane Floyd.[2]
Preparations
Early in Floyd's duration, the hurricane posed a threat to the Lesser Antilles, prompting
Although Floyd's track prediction was above average while out at sea, the forecasts as it approached the coastline were merely average compared to forecasts from the previous ten years. The official forecasts did not predict Floyd's northward track nor its significant weakening before landfall.[10] At some point, the NHC issued a hurricane warning for nearly all of the East Coast of the United States, from Florida City, Florida, to Plymouth, Massachusetts; however, only a fraction of this area actually received hurricane-force winds. The last time such widespread hurricane warnings occurred was during Hurricane Donna in 1960.[2]
Initial fears were of a direct hit as a large Category 4 hurricane in Florida, potentially costlier and deadlier than Hurricane Andrew had been in 1992. In preparation for a potentially catastrophic landfall, more than one million Florida residents were told to evacuate, of which 272,000 were in Miami-Dade County.[11] U.S. President Bill Clinton declared a federal state of emergency in both Florida and Georgia in anticipation of the storm's approach.[12] As the storm turned to the north, more people were evacuated as a progressively larger area was threatened. The massive storm prompted what was then the largest peacetime evacuation in U.S. history, with around 2.6 million evacuating coastal areas in Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas.[13]
With the storm predicted to hit near Cape Canaveral with winds of over 140 mph (230 km/h), all but 80 of Kennedy Space Center's 12,500-person workforce were evacuated. The hangars that house three space shuttles can withstand winds of only 105 mph (169 km/h), and a direct hit could have resulted in potentially billions of dollars in damage of space equipment.[14] In the theoretical scenario, the damage would be caused by water, always a potential problem in an area only nine feet above sea level. If water entered the facility, it would damage the electronics as well as requiring a complete inspection of all hardware.[15] When Floyd actually passed by the area, Kennedy Space Center only reported light winds with minor water intrusion. Damage was minor overall, and was repaired easily.[16]
A
A state of emergency was declared in Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey prompting schools statewide to be shut down on September 16. In Delaware, about 300 people evacuated.[20][21][22]
In Atlantic Canada, the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued 14 warnings related to Floyd, generating significant media interest. About 100 Sable Offshore Energy Project employees were evacuated to the mainland. In southwestern Nova Scotia, 66 schools were closed, and provincial ferry service with Bar Harbor, Maine was canceled.[23]
Impact
State/country | Deaths |
---|---|
The Bahamas | 1 |
North Carolina | 51 |
Virginia | 4 |
Maryland | 2 |
Delaware | 2 |
Pennsylvania | 13 |
New Jersey | 8 |
New York | 2 |
Connecticut | 1 |
Vermont | 1 |
Total | 85 |
With a death toll of 85, Hurricane Floyd was the deadliest United States hurricane since Hurricane Agnes in 1972. The storm was the third-costliest hurricane in the nation's history at the time, with monetary damage estimated at $6.5 billion (1999 USD); it ranked the 19th costliest as of 2017.[24] Most of the deaths and damage were from inland, freshwater flooding in eastern North Carolina.
Caribbean and Bahamas
Around when Floyd first became a hurricane, its outer bands moved over the Lesser Antilles.[25]
Hurricane Floyd lashed the Bahamas with winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) and waves up to 50 ft (15 m) in height.
Southeastern United States
For several days, Hurricane Floyd paralleled the east coast of Florida, spurring widespread evacuations. Ultimately, the storm left $50 million in damage, mostly in Volusia county. There, high winds and falling trees damaged 337 homes. The highest recorded wind gust in the state was 69 mph (111 km/h) in Daytona Beach. Beach erosion affected much of the state's Atlantic coast. The most significant effects were in Brevard and Volusia counties, where waves damaged houses and piers. Rainfall in the state reached 3.2 in (81 mm) in Sanford.[2][29][30]
Farther north in Georgia, Floyd produced wind gusts of 53 mph (85 km/h) at Savannah International Airport. The winds knocked down a few trees and power lines near the coast, but statewide damage was minimal. In Savannah, the hurricane produced tides 3.3 ft (1.0 m) above normal. Rainfall was light in the state, reaching 0.85 in (22 mm) in Newington.[31][2]
Tropical storm force winds affected the entirety of the South Carolina coastline, with statewide damage estimated at $17 million. Sustained winds reached 54 mph (87 km/h) at the Charleston National Weather Service Office, which also recorded wind gusts of 85 mph (137 km/h). The winds destroyed a few roofs and knocked down thousands of trees, leaving more than 200,000 people without electricity. The hurricane produced above normal tides along the coast, reaching 10.1 ft (3.1 m) above normal in Charleston Harbor. The waves caused minor to moderate beach erosion. At Myrtle Beach International Airport, Hurricane Floyd dropped 16.06 in (408 mm) of rainfall, the highest recorded in the state.[32][2]
North Carolina
North Carolina received the brunt of the storm's destruction. In all, Hurricane Floyd caused 51 fatalities in North Carolina, much of them from freshwater flooding, as well as billions in damage.
The storm surge from the large hurricane amounted to 9–10 ft (2.7–3.0 m) along the southeastern portion of the state. The hurricane also spawned numerous tornadoes, most of which caused only minor damage. Damage to power lines left over 500,000 customers without electricity at some point during the storm's passage.[2]
Just weeks prior to Floyd hitting, Hurricane Dennis brought up to 15 in (380 mm) of rain to southeastern North Carolina. When Hurricane Floyd moved across the state in early September, it produced torrential rainfall, amounting to a maximum of 19.06 in (484 mm) in Wilmington. Though it moved quickly, the extreme rainfall was due to Floyd's interaction with an approaching cold front across the area.[2]
Extensive flooding, especially along NC Hwy 91 and the White Oak Loop neighborhood, led to overflowing rivers; nearly every river basin in eastern North Carolina reached 500 year or greater flood levels.[33] Most localized flooding happened overnight; Floyd dropped nearly 17 in (430 mm) of rain during the hours of its passage and many residents were not aware of the flooding until the water came into their homes. The U. S. Navy, National Guard and the Coast Guard performed nearly 1700 fresh water rescues of people trapped on the roofs of their homes due to the rapid rise of the water. By contrast, many of the worst affected areas did not reach peak flood levels for several weeks after the storm, as the water accumulated in rivers and moved downstream (see flood graphic at right).
The passage of Hurricane Irene four weeks later contributed an additional 6 in (150 mm) of rain over the still-saturated area, causing further flooding.
The
The Neuse River, Roanoke River, Waccamaw River, and New River exceeded 500-year flood levels, although damage was lower in these areas (compared to the Tar River) because of lower population densities. Because most of the Cape Fear River basin was west of the peak rainfall areas, the city of Wilmington was spared the worst flooding despite having the highest localized rainfall; however, the Northeast Cape Fear River (a tributary) did exceed 500-year flood levels. Of the state's eastern rivers, only the Lumber River escaped catastrophic flooding.[33]
Rainfall and strong winds affected many homes across the state, destroying 7,000, leaving 17,000 uninhabitable, and damaging 56,000. Ten thousand people resided in temporary shelters following the storm. The extensive flooding resulted in significant crop damage. As quoted by North Carolina Secretary of Health and Human Services H. David Bruton, "Nothing since the Civil War has been as destructive to families here. The recovery process will be much longer than the water-going-down process."[13] Around 31,000 jobs were lost from over 60,000 businesses through the storm, causing nearly $4 billion (1999 USD, $7.02 billion 2022 USD) in lost business revenue.[38] In much of the affected area, officials urged people to either boil water or buy bottled water during Floyd's aftermath.[39]
In contrast to the problems eastern North Carolina experienced, much of the western portion of the state remained under a severe drought.[13]
Virginia
Hurricane Floyd left $101 million in damage in Virginia, and contributed to four fatalities – two from fallen trees in Fairfax and Halifax County, one in a traffic accident in Hanover County, and a man in Accomack County who drowned in his submerged vehicle.[40] As in North Carolina and elsewhere along its path, Floyd dropped torrential rainfall across eastern Virginia, reaching 16.57 in (421 mm) in Newport News.[2] While Floyd moved through southeastern Virginia, it was still at hurricane status, producing winds strong enough to knock down hundreds of trees and power lines. The highest sustained winds in the state were 46 mph (74 km/h) at Langley Air Force Base.[2] Wind gusts were much stronger, reaching 100 mph (160 km/h) on the James River Bridge.[41] Floyd's winds and rains knocked down hundreds of trees across the state, some centuries old.[40]
The heavy rains washed out several roads, and closed regional routes including
Mid-Atlantic
As Floyd moved northward from Virginia, a stalled
The hurricane's rainbands moved across Maryland, dropping 12.59 in (320 mm) of rainfall in Chestertown, Maryland.[42] Statewide, about 450 people required evacuated from low-lying areas. A mudslide in Anne Arundel County stranded five trains carrying about 1,000 passengers. Flooding closed 225 roads statewide, with dozens of motorists requiring rescue, and more than 90 bridges were damaged. A man in Centreville died while attempting to jump a washed out bridge on his motorcycle. High tides, 2 to 3 ft (0.61 to 0.91 m) above normal, affected coastal areas of St. Mary's, Calvert, Harford, and Anne Arundel counties, with 5 houses destroyed and 23 severely damaged. Flooding inundated the only bridge to St. George Island, stranding six people. The highest statewide wind gust – 71 mph (114 km/h) – occurred in Tall Timbers, while the highest wind gust in eastern Maryland was 52 mph (83 km/h) in Ocean City.[43][20] The winds knocked down hundreds of trees, including the nearly 400 year–old Liberty Tree at St. John's College in Annapolis.[43][44] The winds also knocked down power lines, leaving about 500,000 customers without electricity. Two people were injured, and one person killed, from Carbon monoxide poisoning related to using a generator. The Anne Arundel county fair was canceled for the first time in its history.[43] In Baltimore, the Baltimore Orioles postponed a baseball game.[45] Statewide damage was estimated at $7.9 million.[46]
In Delaware, Hurricane Floyd left $8.42 million in damage.[21] The storm dropped torrential rainfall, reaching 12.58 in (320 mm) in Greenwood, Delaware.[42] During the storm, Greenwood recorded 10.58 in (269 mm), breaking the record for the state's highest 24 hour rainfall total. The rains caused record crests along rivers and streams in New Castle County. The White Clay Creek crested at 17.6 ft (5.4 m), and was above flood stage for 18 hours. Statewide, Floyd damaged 171 homes, and caused 33 homes to be condemned. Flooding closed hundreds of roads and bridges, with two bridges and a few miles of track belonging to the Wilmington and Western Railroad washed out. Dozens of motorists required rescue. Winds in the state reached 64 mph (104 km/h) at Cape Henlopen along the coast. The winds knocked down hundreds of trees and power lines, leaving about 25,000 people without power.[2][21]
As Floyd continued up the coast, it dropped heavy rainfall in New Jersey, reaching 14.13 in (359 mm) in
In Pennsylvania, Floyd killed 13 people, largely due to drownings, fallen trees, or heart attacks, and another 40 people were severely injured. The hurricane left about $60 million in damage, mostly related to its heavy rainfall, which peaked at 12.13 in (308 mm) in Marcus Hook.[42] The highest wind gust was 58 mph (93 km/h) occurred at the Commodore Barry Bridge. The two hardest-hit counties were Delaware and Bucks, where more than 10,000 homes were flooded, including 200 that were damaged to the point of being uninhabitable. More than 4,000 people statewide lost their homes due to the storm. Many creeks swelled to record levels, in some cases over double their estimated flood stage, which left motorists in need of rescue, including a bus with 11 students in Buckingham Township. Statewide, Floyd left over 500,000 homes and businesses without power.[53]
As Floyd moved through New York, its precipitation reached 12.21 in (310 mm) in
New England and Canada
Floyd's heavy rainfall continued into New England, with 11.13 in (283 mm) of rain reported at the
The remnants of Floyd produced rainfall and gusty winds from Ontario to
Aftermath
The Bahamas
To help the affected citizens, the Bahamas Red Cross Society opened 41 shelters, though within one week many returned home.[62] The Bahamas required $435,000 (1999 USD; $795,617 2024 USD) in aid following the storm, much of it in food parcels.[26] The Inter-American Development Bank loaned $21 million (1999 USD; $38.4 million 2024 USD) to the archipelago to restore bridges, roads, seawalls, docks, and other building projects in the aftermath of the hurricane.[63]
North Carolina
The Hurricane Floyd disaster was followed by what many judged to be a very slow federal response. Fully three weeks after the storm hit, Jesse Jackson complained to FEMA Director James Lee Witt on his CNN program Both Sides Now, "It seemed there was preparation for Hurricane Floyd, but then came Flood Floyd. Bridges are overwhelmed, levees are overwhelmed, whole towns under water ... [it's] an awesome scene of tragedy. So there's a great misery index in North Carolina." Witt responded, "We're starting to move the camper trailers in. It's been so wet it's been difficult to get things in there, but now it's going to be moving very quickly. And I think you're going to see a—I think the people there will see a big difference [within] this next weekend."[citation needed]
Runoff from the hurricane created significant problems for the ecology of North Carolina's rivers and sounds. In the immediate aftermath of the storm, freshwater runoff, sediment, and decomposing organic matter caused salinity and oxygen levels in Pamlico Sound and its tributary rivers to drop to nearly zero. This raised fears of massive fish and shrimp kills, as had happened after Hurricane Fran and Hurricane Bonnie, and the state government responded quickly to provide financial aid to fishing and shrimping industries. Strangely, however, the year's shrimp and crab harvests were extremely prosperous; one possible explanation is that runoff from Hurricane Dennis caused marine animals to begin migrating to saltier waters, so they were less vulnerable to Floyd's ill effects.[1] Pollution from runoff was also a significant fear. Numerous pesticides were found in low but measurable quantities in the river waters, particularly in the Neuse River. Overall, however, the concentration of contaminants was slightly lower than had been measured in Hurricane Fran, likely because Floyd simply dropped more water to dilute them.[33]
When the hurricane hit North Carolina, it flooded hog waste lagoons and released 25 million gallons of manure into the rivers, which contaminated the water supply and reduced water quality.[64] Ronnie Kennedy, Duplin County director for environmental health, said that of 310 private wells he had tested for contamination since the storm, 9 percent, or three times the average across eastern North Carolina, had faecal coliform bacteria. Normally, tests showing any hint of faeces in drinking water, an indication that it can be carrying disease-causing pathogens, are cause for immediate action.[65]
Retirement
Due to the high impact, extensive damage, and loss of life from the hurricane, the name Floyd was retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 2000, and it will never again be used for another north Atlantic tropical cyclone. It was replaced with Franklin for the 2005 season.[66]
See also
- Hurricane Dorian
- Hurricane Florence
- Hurricane Irene
- Hurricane Isaias
- List of New Jersey hurricanes
- List of North Carolina hurricanes (1980–1999)
- List of Pennsylvania hurricanes
- List of wettest tropical cyclones in Massachusetts
- Center for Natural Hazards Research
- Timeline of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season
Notes
- ^ All wind speeds in the article are maximum sustained winds sustained for one minute, unless otherwise noted.
References
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