Husayn ibn Ali
Husayn ibn Ali الْحُسَيْنُ بْنُ عَلِيٍّ | |
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3rd Shia Imam | |
In office 670–680 | |
Preceded by | Hasan ibn Ali |
Succeeded by | Ali al-Sajjad |
Title | List
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Born | 10 January 626 (3 Sha'ban AH 4)[6] |
Died | 10 October 680 (10 Muharram AH 61) | (aged 54)
Cause of death | Killed at the Battle of Karbala |
Resting place | Imam Husayn Shrine, Karbala Governorate, Iraq 32°36′59″N 44°1′57″E / 32.61639°N 44.03250°E |
Religion | Islam |
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Relatives | List
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Opponent | Yazid I |
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Husayn ibn Ali (
During the caliphate of Ali, Husayn accompanied him in wars. After the
The Battle of Karbala galvanized the development of the pro-Alid[a] party (Shi'at Ali) into a unique religious sect with its own rituals and collective memory. It has a central place in the Shi'a history, tradition, and theology, and has frequently been recounted in Shi'a literature. For the Shi'a, Husayn's suffering and martyrdom became a symbol of sacrifice in the struggle for right against wrong, and for justice and truth against injustice and falsehood. It also provides the members of the Shi'a faith with a catalog of heroic norms. The battle is commemorated during an annual ten-day period during the Islamic month of Muharram by many Muslims especially Shi'a, culminating on tenth day of the month, known as the Day of Ashura. On this day, Shi'a Muslims mourn, hold public processions, organize religious gathering, beat their chests and in some cases self-flagellate. Sunni Muslims likewise regard the incident as a historical tragedy; Husayn and his companions are widely regarded as martyrs by both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims.
Early life
According to majority of narrations, Husayn was born on the 3rd of Sha'ban 4 AH (10 January 626 CE)[11] in Medina and was still a child when his grandfather, Muhammad, died.[18] He was the younger son of Ali, the cousin of Muhammad, and Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, both from the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe.[19] Both Hasan and Husayn were named by Muhammad, although Ali had other names such as "Harb" in mind. To celebrate Husayn's birth, Muhammad sacrificed a ram, and Fatima shaved his head and donated the same weight of his hair in silver as alms.[20] According to Islamic traditions, Husayn is mentioned in the Torah as "Shubayr" and in the Gospels as "Tab". Aaron, Moses' brother, gave the same names to his sons after learning the names God had chosen for Ali's children.[21]
Husayn was brought up in the household of Muhammad at first.
Event of Mubahala
In the year 10 AH (631–632) a
If anyone dispute with you in this matter [concerning Jesus] after the knowledge which has come to you, say: Come let us call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves, then let us swear an oath and place the curse of God on those who lie.(Qur'an 3:61)[25]
In Shia perspective, in the
During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman
During the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar, Husayn was present at some events such as testifying about the story of Fadak.[30] According to a narration, Husayn, while the second caliph was sitting on the pulpit of Muhammad and giving a speech, objected to him for sitting on the pulpit of Muhammad, and Umar also stopped his sermon and came down from the pulpit.[31] During the time of Uthman, he defended Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, who had preached against some of the actions of the tyrants and was to be exiled from Medina.[32]
According to several narrations, Ali asked Hasan and Husayn to defend the third Caliph during the
During the caliphate of Ali and Hasan
During the Caliphate of Ali, Husayn, along with his brothers Hasan and
After the
During the caliphate of Mu'awiya
According to the Shi'a, Husayn was the third
Uprising
Refusal to give allegiance to Yazid
Immediately after Mu'awiya's death on 15th of Rajab 60 AH (22 April 680 AD), Yazid charged the governor of Medina, Walid ibn Utba ibn Abu Sufyan, to secure allegiance from Husayn with force if necessary.[40][41] Yazid's goal was to take control of the situation in the city before the people became aware of Mu'awiya's death. Yazid's concern was especially about his two rivals in the caliphate; Husayn and Abdullah ibn Zubayr who had previously renounced allegiance.[42] Husayn answered the summons but declined to pledge allegiance in the secretive environment of the meeting, suggesting it should be done in public.[18] Marwan ibn Hakam told Walid to imprison or behead him, but due to Husayn's kinship with Muhammad, Walid was unwilling to take any action against him. A few days later, Husayn left for Mecca without acknowledging Yazid.[43] He arrived in Mecca at the beginning of May 680,[44] and stayed there until the beginning of September.[45] He was accompanied by his wives, children and brothers, as well as Hasan's sons.[11]
Invitations from Kufa
Husayn had considerable support in Kufa, which had been the caliphal capital during the reigns of his father and brother. The Kufans had fought the Umayyads and their Syrian allies during the First Fitna, the five-year civil war which had established the Umayyad Caliphate.
Journey towards Kufa
Despite the advice of Muhammad Hanafi, Abdullah ibn Umar, and the constant insistence of Abdullah ibn Abbas in Mecca, Husayn did not back down from his decision to go to Kufa.[18] Ibn 'Abbas pointed out that the Kufis had left both Ali and Hassan alone, and suggested that Husayn go to Yemen instead of Kufa, or at least not take women and children with him if he were to go to Iraq.[42] Husayn insisted on his decision and wrote about his motives and goals in a famous letter or will that he gave to Mohammad Hanafiya:
"I did not go out for fun and selfishness and for corruption and oppression; Rather, my goal is to correct the corruptions that have occurred in the nation of my ancestors. I want to command the good and forbid the bad, and follow the tradition of my grandfather and the way of my father Ali ibn Abi Talib. So, whoever accepts this truth (and follows me) has accepted the way of God and whoever rejects (and does not follow me) I will walk (my way) with patience and perseverance so that God may be the judge between me and this nation and he is the best judge."[50]
Then, Husayn, who had not yet received the letters of the new events of Kufa, prepared to leave for Kufa on the 8th or 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah 60 AH / 10 or 12 September 680 AD. Instead of performing Hajj, he performed Umrah, and in the absence of the Governor of Mecca,
On the way, Husayn encountered various people. In response to Husayn's question about the situation in Iraq, the poet Farzadaq explicitly told him that the hearts of the Iraqi people are with you, but their swords are in the service of the Umayyads. But Husayn's decision was unwavering, and in response to those who tried to dissuade him, he said that things were in God's hands and that God wanted the best for His servants and would not be hostile to anyone who was right. The news of the murder of Muslim ibn Aqeel and Hani ibn Arwa was reported by some travellers, for the first time in Thalabiyah.[18]
When Husayn reached the area of Zabalah, he found out that his messenger,
In the area of Sharaf or Zuhsam, armies emerged from Kufa under the leadership of Hurr ibn Yazid. With the weather being hot there, Husayn ordered water to be given to them and then announced his motives to the army and said:
"You did not have an Imam and I became the means of uniting the ummah. Our family is more deserving of government than anyone else, and those in power do not deserve it and rule unjustly. If you support me, I will go to Kufa. But if you do not want me anymore, I will return to my first place."
Ibn Ziyad had stationed troops on the routes into Kufa. Husayn and his followers were intercepted by the vanguard of Yazid's army, about 1,000 men led by Hurr ibn Yazid al-Tamimi, south of Kufa near Qadisiyya.[53] Husayn said to them:
I did not come to you until your letters were brought to me, and your messengers came to me saying, 'Come to us, for we have no imam.' ... Therefore, if you give me what you guaranteed in your covenants and sworn testimonies, I will come to your town. If you will not and are averse to my coming, I will leave you for the place from which I came to you.[56]
He then showed them the letters he had received from the Kufans, including some in Hurr's force. Hurr denied any knowledge of the letters and stated that Husayn must go with him to Ibn Ziyad, which Husayn refused to do. Hurr responded that he would not allow Husayn to either enter Kufa or go back to Medina, but that he was free to travel anywhere else he wished. Nevertheless, he did not prevent four Kufans from joining Husayn. Husayn's caravan started to move towards Qadisiyya, and Hurr followed them. At Naynawa, Hurr received orders from Ibn Ziyad to force Husayn's caravan to halt in a desolate place without fortifications or water. One of Husayn's companions suggested that they attack Hurr and move to the fortified village of al-Aqr. Husayn refused, stating that he did not want to start the hostilities.[53]
According to Valiri, Hurr ordered his army to take Husayn and his companions to Ibn Ziyad without fighting and intended to persuade Husayn to do so. But when he saw that Husayn was moving his caravan, he did not dare to follow it. However, Madlung and Bahramian write that when Husayn was ready to leave, Hurr blocked his way and said that if Husayn did not accept the order given by Ibn Ziyad, Hurr would not allow him to go to Medina or Kufa. He suggested to Husayn to neither go to Kufa nor to Medina, rather write a letter to Yazid or Ibn Ziyad and wait for their orders, hoping to avoid this difficult situation by receiving an answer. But Husayn did not heed to his advice and continued to Azad or Qadisiyah. Hurr informed Husayn that he was doing this for Husayn and that if there would be a war, Husayn would be killed. Husayn, however, was not afraid of death and stopped in an area called Karbala, on the outskirts of Kufa.[10]
In one place, Husayn recited a sermon and said: "I do not see death except as martyrdom and living with the oppressors except as hardship." In another place, he explained the reason for his opposition to the government while recalling the bitterness of breaking the allegiance of the people of Kufa with his father and brother, saying, "These people have submitted to the obedience of Satan and have left the obedience of God the Merciful." On the way, he refused to accept the offer to go to the tribe of Tayy by pointing to his pact with Hurr
about not returning.[57] Later, a messenger from Ibn Ziad came to Hur and without greeting Husayn, gave a letter to Hur in which Ibn Ziad had ordered him to not to stop in a place where Husayn can have easy access to water. With this letter, Obaidullah wanted to force Husayn to fight.[48] Zuhair ibn Qayn suggested to Husayn to attack the small army of Hur and capture the fortified village of Akr. But Husayn did not accept; Because he did not want to start a war.[10]
On 2 October 680 (2 Muharram 61 AH), Husayn arrived at Karbala, a desert plain 70 kilometers (43 mi) north of Kufa, and set up camp.[58][52]
On the following day, a 4,000-strong Kufan army arrived under the command of
Husayn and Ibn Sa'd met during the night to negotiate a settlement; it was rumored that Husayn made three proposals: either he be allowed to return to Medina, submit to Yazid directly, or be sent to a border post where he would fight alongside the Muslim armies. According to Madelung, these reports are probably untrue as Husayn at this stage is unlikely to have considered submitting to Yazid. A
The army advanced toward Husayn's camp on the evening of 9 October. Husayn sent Abbas to ask Ibn Sa'd to wait until the next morning, so that they could consider the matter. Ibn Sa'd agreed to this respite.[61] Husayn told his men that they were all free to leave, with his family, under the cover of night, since their opponents only wanted him. Very few availed themselves of this opportunity. Defense arrangements were made: tents were brought together and tied to one another and a ditch was dug behind the tents and filled with wood ready to be set alight in case of attack. Husayn and his followers then spent the rest of the night praying.[62][48]
Battle of Karbala
After the morning prayer on 10 October, both parties took up battle positions. Husayn appointed
After Husayn's speech, Zuhayr ibn Qayn attempted to dissuade Ibn Sa'd's soldiers from killing Husayn, but in vain. Ibn Sa'd's army fired several volleys of arrows. This was followed by duels[62] in which several of Husayn's companions were slain. The right wing of the Kufans, led by Amr ibn al-Hajjaj, attacked Husayn's force, but was repulsed. Hand-to-hand fighting paused and further volleys of arrows were exchanged. Shemr, who commanded the left wing of the Umayyad army, launched an attack, but after losses on both sides he was repulsed.[62][65] This was followed by cavalry attacks. Husayn's cavalry resisted fiercely and Ibn Sa'd brought in armoured cavalry and five hundred archers. After their horses were wounded by arrows, Husayn's cavalrymen dismounted and fought on foot.[66]
Since Umayyad forces could approach Husayn's army from the front only, Ibn Sa'd ordered the tents to be burned. All except the one which Husayn and his family were using were set on fire. Shemr wanted to burn that one too, but was prevented by his companions. The plan backfired and flames hindered the Umayyad advance for a while. After noon prayers, Husayn's companions were encircled, and almost all of them were killed. Husayn's relatives, who had not taken part in the fighting so far, joined the battle. Husayn's son
Death
During the Battle of Karbala the Umayyad soldiers hesitated to initiate a direct attack on Husayn; however, he was struck in the mouth by an arrow as he went to the river to drink.[48] He collected his blood in a cupped hand and cast towards the sky, complaining to God of his suffering.[68] Later, he was surrounded and struck on the head by Malik ibn Nusayr. The blow cut through his hooded cloak, which Husayn removed while cursing his attacker. He put a cap on his head and wrapped a turban around it to staunch the bleeding. Ibn Nusayr seized the bloodied cloak and retreated.[68][69]
Shemr advanced with a group of foot soldiers towards Husayn, who was now prepared to fight as few people were left on his side. A young boy from Husayn's camp escaped from the tents, ran to him, tried to defend him from a sword stroke and had his arm cut off. Ibn Sa'd approached the tents and Husayn's sister
Aftermath
Seventy or seventy-two people died on Husayn's side, of whom about twenty were descendants of Abu Talib, the father of Ali. This included two of Husayn's sons, six of his paternal brothers, three sons of Hasan ibn Ali, three sons of Jafar ibn Abi Talib and three sons and three grandsons of Aqil ibn Abi Talib.[48] Following the battle, Husayn's clothes were stripped, and his sword, shoes and baggage were taken. The women's jewelry and cloaks were also seized. Shemr wanted to kill Husayn's only surviving son Ali al-Sajjad, who had not taken part in the fighting because of illness, but was prevented by Ibn Sa'd.[68][64] There are reports of more than sixty wounds on Husayn's body,[64] which was then trampled with horses as previously instructed by Ibn Ziyad.[48] The bodies of Husayn's companions were decapitated.[71] There were eighty-eight dead in Ibn Sa'd's army, who were buried before he left.[72] After his departure, members of the Banu Asad tribe, from the nearby village of Ghadiriya, buried the headless bodies of Husayn's companions.[68]
Husayn's family, along with the heads of the dead, were sent to Ibn Ziyad.[71] He poked Husayn's mouth with a stick and intended to kill Ali al-Sajjad, but spared him after the pleas of Husayn's sister Zaynab.[73] The heads and the family were then sent to Yazid,[71] who also poked Husayn's mouth with a stick. The historian Henri Lammens has suggested that this is a duplication of the report regarding Ibn Ziyad.[74] No one was compassionate towards the women and Ali al-Sajjad,[71][75][76] One of his courtiers asked for the hand of a captive woman from Husayn's family in marriage, which resulted in heated altercation between Yazid and Zaynab.[77][78] The women of Yazid's household joined the captive women in their lamentation for the dead. After a few years, the women were compensated for their belongings looted in Karbala and were sent back to Medina.[79]
The killing of the grandson of Muhammad shocked the Muslim community.[17] The image of Yazid suffered and gave rise to sentiment that he was impious.[80] Prior to the Battle of Karbala, the Muslim community was divided into two political factions. Nonetheless, a religious sect with distinct theological doctrines and specific set of rituals had not developed.[16][17][81] Karbala gave this early political party of pro-Alids a distinct religious identity and helped transform it into a distinct religious sect.[82][83] Heinz Halm writes: "There was no religious aspect to Shi'ism prior to 680. The death of the third imam and his followers marked the 'big bang' that created the rapidly expanding cosmos of Shi'ism and brought it into motion."[83]
Related uprisings
A few prominent Alid supporters in Kufa felt guilty for abandoning Husayn after having invited him to revolt. To atone for what they perceived as their sin, they began a movement known as Tawwabin uprising, under Sulayman ibn Surad, a companion of Muhammad, to fight the Umayyads, and attracted large-scale support.[84] The armies met in January 685 at Battle of Ayn al-Warda; which resulted killing most of them including Ibn Surad.[84] The defeat of the Tawwabin left the leadership of the Kufan pro-Alids in the hand of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi. In October 685, Mukhtar and his supporters seized Kufa. His control extended to most of Iraq and parts of northwestern Iran.[85] Mukhtar executed Kufans involved in the killing of Husayn, including Ibn Sa'd and Shemr, while thousands of people fled to Basra.[86] He then sent his general Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar to fight an approaching Umayyad army, led by Ibn Ziyad, which had been sent to reconquer the province. The Umayyad army was routed at the Battle of Khazir in August 686 and Ibn Ziyad was slain.[87] Later on, in April 687, Mukhtar was killed.[88]
Historical analysis
Based on an official report sent to caliph Yazid, which describes the battle of Karbala very briefly, stating that it lasted for no longer than a siesta, Lammens concludes that there was no battle at all but a quick massacre that was over in an hour; he suggests that the detailed accounts found in the primary sources are Iraqi fabrications, since their writers were dissatisfied with their hero being killed without putting up a fight.[89] This is countered by the historian Laura Veccia Vaglieri, who argues that despite there being some fabricated accounts, all of the contemporary accounts together form "a coherent and credible narrative". She criticizes Lammens' hypothesis as being based on a single isolated report and being devoid of critical analysis.[90] Similarly, Madelung and Wellhausen assert that the battle lasted from sunrise to sunset and that the overall account of the battle is reliable.[48][91] Vaglieri and Madelung explain the length of the battle despite the numerical disparity between the opposing camps as Ibn Sa'd's attempt to prolong the fight and pressure Husayn into submission instead of attempting to quickly overwhelm and kill him.[90][48]
According to Wellhausen, the compassion that Yazid showed to the family of Husayn, and his cursing of Ibn Ziyad was only for show. He argues that if killing Husayn was a crime its responsibility lay with Yazid and not Ibn Ziyad, who was only performing his duty.[92] Madelung holds a similar view; according to him, early accounts place the responsibility for Husayn's death on Ibn Ziyad instead of Yazid. Yazid, Madelung argues, wanted to end Husayn's opposition, but as a caliph of Islam could not afford to be seen as publicly responsible and so diverted blame onto Ibn Ziyad by hypocritically cursing him.[48] According to Howard, some traditional sources have a tendency to exonerate Yazid at the cost of Ibn Ziyad and lower authorities.[93]
Primary and classic sources
The primary source of the Karbala narrative is the work of the Kufan historian
Tomb
Husayn ibn Ali's tomb is located in the city of Karbala, about 90 km southwest of Baghdad. This tomb was probably formed two centuries after the event of Karbala and was rebuilt and expanded until the thirteenth century AH. This place did not have a building at first and was marked with a simple sign. After that, in the third century AH, a monument was built on it, which was considered during the time of some Abbasid caliphs and Dailami princes and patriarchal and Ottoman rulers, and over time, the city of Karbala was built and expanded around it.[108]
There are several narrations about the burial place of Imam Husayn's head; For example, with his father Ali in Najaf, outside Kufa but not with Ali, in Karbala with his whole body, in Baqiya, in an unknown place in Damascus, in Raqqa, Syria, and in a mosque Mohsen Al-Amin in Cairo.[10]
Commemoration
Shi'a Muslims consider pilgrimages to
The
Mourning for Husayn is considered by Shi'as to be a source of salvation in the afterlife,
During the month of Muharram, elaborate public processions are performed in commemoration of the Battle of Karbala. In contrast to pilgrimage to Husayn's tomb and simple lamenting, these processions do not date back to the time of the battle, but arose during tenth century. Their earliest recorded instance was in Baghdad in 963 during the reign of the first Buyid ruler Mu'izz al-Dawla.[118] The processions start from a husayniyya and the participants parade barefoot through the streets, wailing and beating their chests and heads before returning to the husayniyya for a majlis.[119][120] Sometimes, chains and knives are used to inflict wounds and physical pain.[121] In South Asia, an ornately tacked horse called Zuljenah, representing Husayn's battle horse, is also led riderless through the streets.[122] In Iran, the battle scenes of Karbala are performed on stage in front of an audience in a ritual called taziya (passion play), also known as shabih.[123][124] In India however, taziya refers to the coffins and replicas of Husayn's tomb carried in processions.[123][125]
Most of these rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, reaching a climax on the tenth day, although majalis can also occur throughout the year.
Family life
Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī | |
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Shiism: Imam; Proof of God, The Martyr of Martyrs, Master of the Martyrs All Islam: Ahl al-Bayt, Ṣaḥābī, Martyr;[133][134]Master of the Youths of Paradise[135] | |
Venerated in | All Islam (Salafis honour rather than venerate him). |
Major shrine | Imam Husayn Shrine, Karbala, Iraq |
Husayn's first marriage was with
According to Madelung, Husayn had two sons named Ali. The older one, Ali al-Sajjad who became the fourth Shia Imam later, was 23 years old when his younger brother (Ali al-Akbar) was killed in the Battle of Karbala at the age of 19. Ali al-Akbar was born from Layla, the daughter of Abi Murrah al-Thaqafi, who was an ally of the Umayyads. Husayn's marriage with Layla, according to Madelung, probably had material benefits for Husayn.[11] Ali al-Sajjad's mother, on the other hand, was a slave probably from Sind named Ḡazāla, Solāfa, Salāma, Šāhzanān, or Shahrbanu. According to the reports, commonly accepted by Shia, she was the daughter of Yazdegerd III, the last Sassanid king of Iran to be captured during the Arab conquest.[l][136] On the other hand, in narrative sources, mistakes and confusion have been made between Ali al-Asghar and Abd Allah. Contemporary Shiite circles have carefully identified Sajjad as Ali al-Awsat and Ali al-Asghar as an infant in Karbala; Among these children, Abd Allah – known by the mention of his name in the events of Ashura – is considered the other son of Husayn.[137] According to Madelung, although early Sunni sources refer to Ali al-Sajjad as 'Ali al-Asghar and Ali II as 'Ali al-Akbar, it is probably true that Sheikh Mufid and other Shi'ite writers are correct in stating the opposite. Ali II was killed in Karbala at the age of 19. His mother is Layla, the daughter of Abi Murrah ibn Urwah al-Thaqafi and Maymuna bint Abi Sufyan, the sister of Mu'awiya. According to Madelung, after Hasan's peace with Mu'awiya, Husayn married Layla, from whom Ali al-Akbar was born.[11]
Hasan and Husayn were the only male descendants of the Muhammad from whom the next generations were born. Hence, any person who says that his lineage goes back to the Muhammad is either related to Hasan or to Husayn. Hasan and Husayn are different in this respect from their half brothers, such as Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.[24]
Personality and appearance
Husayn had a white face and sometimes wore a green turban and sometimes a black turban. He would travel with the poor or invite them to his house and feed them. Mu'awiya said about Husayn that he and his father Ali were not deceitful, and Amr ibn al-As considered him the most beloved of the earthlings to the people of heaven.[31]
According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, one of the moral characteristics of Husayn is Tolerance, humility, eloquence, and finally traits that can be deduced from his behavior, such as despising death, hatred of a shameful life, pride, and the like.[10] In many narrations, the resemblance of Husayn and his brother to Muhammad is mentioned, and each of them is likened to half of their grandfather's behavior.[139]
Husayn is described as looking like his grandfather, Muhammad, though not as much as his older brother, Hasan. According to Madelung, Husayn was similar to his father, Ali, while Hasan had the temperament of Muhammad and criticized the policies of his father, Ali. Madelung cites the fact that Hasan named two of his sons Muhammad and did not name any of them Ali and that Husayn named two of his four sons Ali and did not name either Muhammad as proof of this claim.[11] Rasool Jafarian considers the narrations in which Husayn is like Ali and Hasan is like Muhammad to be fake; According to him, the image presented in these narrations could have been used to destroy the image of Ali and Ashura and to be useful to those who were in favor of
Husayn was known for his generosity in Medina, and he freed his slaves and maids if they saw any good behavior. There is a narration that Mu'awiyah sent a maid to Husayn with a lot of property and clothes. When the maid recited verses from the Qur'an and a poem about the instability of the world and the death of man, Husayn set her free and gave her property. Once one of Husayn's slaves did something wrong. But after the slave recited the verse "وَالْعافینَ عَنِ النَّاس",[romanization needed] Husayn forgave him and after that the slave recited the verse "وَلَلَّهُ یُحِبُّ الْمُحسسِينَ"[romanization needed] and Husayn released the slave because of this. There is a narration that Husayn gave the property and goods that he inherited before receiving them. Husayn gave his children's teacher a large sum of money and clothes; While acknowledging that this does not compensate for the value of the teacher's work. A Levantine man once cursed Husayn and Ali, but Husayn forgave him and treated him with kindness. It is said that the place of the food bags that Husayn carried for the poor was obvious on his body on the day of Ashura.[31]
In the Quran and Hadith
In the verses of the Quran
Many Sunni and Shiite commentators, such as Fakhr Razi and Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, in their interpretation of Surah Al-Insan, attribute its revelation to Ali and Fatima and the story of the illness of their child or children and a vow for their recovery.[142][143]
Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i in
In interpreting the verse of purification in Al-Mizan, Tabatabai considers the addressee of this verse to be the Ahl al-Kisa and refers to its hadiths, which number more than seventy hadiths and are mostly from the Sunnis.[143] Sunni commentators such as Fakhr Razi and Ibn Kathir, in their commentary, while narrating various narrations about the example of Ahl al-Bayt in this verse, consider Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn as examples.[144]
In the explanation and interpretation of verse 23 of Surah ash-Shura, Tabatabai in Al-Mizan, while reporting and criticizing the various sayings of the commentators, has said that the meaning of "nearness" is the love of the Ahl al-Bayt of Muhammad; That is, Ali is Fatima, Hassan and Husayn. He goes on to cite various narrations from Sunnis and Shiites that have clarified this issue. Sunni commentators such as Fakhr al-Razi and Ibn Kathir have also referred to this issue.[145][146]
Verse 15 of Surah Al-Ahqaf talks about a pregnant woman who endures a lot of pain and suffering. This verse is considered a reference to Fatima Zahra, and the son is also known as Husayn, when God expressed his condolences to Muhammad about the fate of this grandson and Muhammad expressed this to Fatima Zahra, she was very upset.[10]
Other verses that the Shiites attribute to Husayn include verse 6 of Surah
In the biography of the Prophet of Islam
Husayn is placed as an example for the second weight in the narrations related to "
News of Husayn's fate
There are narrations that Gabriel informed Muhammad at the time of Husayn's birth that his ummah would kill Husayn and that the Imamate would be from Husayn, and that Muhammad informed his companions of how Husayn had been killed. Except for Muhammad, Ali and Hasan, they had said the same thing. God also informed the previous prophets about the killing of Husayn.[31] Ali also knew that Husayn would be killed in Karbala, and once he passed by this area, he stopped and cried and remembered the news of Muhammad. He interpreted Karbala (کربلا) as (کرب) anguish and (بلا) calamity. The slain of Karbala will enter Paradise without any reckoning.[10]
Works
There are narrations, sermons and letters left from Husayn Ibn Ali which are available in Sunni and Shiite sources. Narrations about him can be divided into two periods before and after the Imamate. In the first period – which is the period of his life in the life of his grandfather, father, mother and brother – there are at least two types of narrations about him: first, his narrations from his relatives, and second, his personal hadiths. In Sunni sources, only the aspect of the narration of his hadith has been considered in these hadiths. These Musnads, like the Musnad of the Companions of the Prophet of Islam, also have a Musnad named Husayn Ibn Ali. In his Musnad, Abu Bakr Bazar has narrated the Musnad of Husayn Ibn Ali with 4 hadiths and Tabarani has narrated his Musnad with 27 hadiths, respectively. In the Musnad of Husayn ibn Ali, in addition to the hadiths of Husayn himself, there are also hadiths of the Prophet of Islam and Ali ibn Abi Talib. In the present era, Azizullah Atardi has compiled the document of the Imam of the Martyr Abi Abdullah Al-Husayn Ibn Ali.[148]
In the category of sermons of Husayn Ibn Ali, there are some sermons of him in the pre-Imamate period, some of which are very famous. Thus, the sermon of Husayn ibn Ali, after public allegiance to Ali ibn Abi Talib and others, is his sermon in the battle of Safin. Another example is a poem by Husayn about the loss of his brother Hasan after his burial. The sermons and letters of Husayn ibn Ali during his Imamate are more than before him. His letters to the Shiites, as well as his letters to Mu'awiyah regarding his adherence to the peace treaty, trace Mu'awiyah's actions, especially regarding Yazid, as well as his sermons and letters in the form of letters of recommendation at the beginning of Yazid's caliphate. An important part of the sermons and letters belong to the period of the uprising of Husayn bin Ali. Correspondence with Kufis, Basrians and people like
One of the most famous Shia prayers, as well as the works of Husayn, recorded in the book,
Views
The killing of Husayn has had an emotional impact on Sunnis,[151] who remember the event as a tragic incident and those killed in the company of Husayn as martyrs.[152] The impact on Shi'a Islam has been much deeper.[151][152] According to Vaglieri, only the adherents of the Umayyad who considered him as "a rebel against the established authority", condoned his murder by Yazid, but their opinion was opposed by the majority of Muslims.[153] Therefore, almost all Muslims consider Husayn honorable because he was the grandson of Muhammad and because of the belief that he sacrificed himself for an ideal.[153] Historian Edward Gibbon described the events at Karbala as a tragedy.[154][155] According to historian Syed Akbar Hyder, Mahatma Gandhi attributed the historical progress of Islam, to the "sacrifices of Muslim saints like Husayn" rather than military force.[156]
Sunnis
The positive attitude of the Sunnis towards Husayn, according to Vaglieri, is most likely due to the sad narrations that Abu Mikhnaf has collected, some of which have been narrated directly or with short chains of transmitters, mostly from Kufis who regretted their actions towards Husayn. These sad narrations of the Kufis, which were a sign of Abu Mikhnaf's Shia tendencies, became the source of the narrations used by later historians and spread throughout the Islamic world.[153] According to Rasul Jafarian, the Shia historian, fatalism, being promoted by Mu'awiya, caused Husayn's move to never be considered an uprising against corruption by the Sunnis, and they only considered it an illegal insurrection (Fitna).[157]
Shias
The most important components of Shia views about Husayn are the belief in the
Hence, he left Mecca for Kufa, aware of his imminent sacrifice and yet without any hesitation or attempt to escape the will of God. A narration according to which Husayn was called by God to choose between sacrifice and Victory (with the help of an angel), gives even more value to his enterprise. About the reason for Husayn's sacrifice in Shia sources Vaglieri write:[153]
Husayn gave his person and his possessions as an offering to God to "revive the religion of his grandfather Muhammad", "to redeem it", and "save it from the destruction into which it had been thrown by the behaviour of Yazid"; furthermore, he wished to show that the conduct of the hypocrites was shameful and to teach the peoples the necessity of revolt against unjust and impious governments (fasiks), in short he offered himself as an example (uswa) to the Muslim community.[153]
He is thus remembered as the prince of martyrs (Sayyed al-Shuhada).[82] The historian G. R. Hawting describes the Battle of Karbala as a "supreme" example of "suffering and martyrdom" for Shi'as.[151] According to Abdulaziz Sachedina, it is seen by Shi'as the climax of suffering and oppression, revenge for which came to be one of the primary goals of many Shi'a uprisings. This revenge is believed to be one of the fundamental objectives of the future revolution of the twelfth Shi'a Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi, whose return is awaited.[158] With his return, Husayn and his seventy-two companions are expected to be resurrected along with their killers, who will then be punished.[159] Believing that Husayn wanted to redeem people from their sins with his blood, and that his action was "a redemptive sacrifice for the salvation of the world", according to Vaglieri, is foreign to Shia belief; however it may have been penetrated to Shia ta'zieh and recent poems later on, since it is easy to make the transition from tawassul to this idea, or it may be influenced by Christian ideas.[153]
Among the verses that interpreted by some Shia sources as referring to Husayn is (Qur'an 46:15) which talks about a pregnant mother, Fatima, the mother of Husayn, who suffers a lot, when God expressed his condolences to Muhammad about the fate of this grandson, and Muhammad expressed this to Fatima; thus she was very upset.[21] According to another narration, the mysterious letters of K.H.Y.A.S. at the beginning of the nineteenth chapter of the Qur'an (Maryam (surah)) refers to Husayn and his fate in Karbala, that was similar to the fate of John the Baptist who was also beheaded and his head was placed on a plate.[21] It is also narrated that Ali knew that Husayn would be killed in Karbala, and when he passed by this area, he stopped and cried, remembering Muhammad's prophecy. Ali interpreted the name "Karbala" as "Karb" and "bala" meaning "affliction" and "trial". The slain of Karbala will enter Paradise without any reckoning.[21]
The traditional narration "Every day is Ashura and every land is Karbala!" is used by the Shi'a as a mantra to live their lives as Husayn did on Ashura, i.e. with complete sacrifice for God and for others. The saying is also intended to signify that what happened on Ashura in Karbala must always be remembered as part of suffering everywhere.[160]
Husayn's head in Isma'ilism
The Fatimid vizier Badr al-Jamali conquered Palestine under Caliph al-Mustansir Billah and discovered the head of Husayn in AH 448 (1056 AD). He constructed the minbar, a mosque and the mashhad at the place of burial, known as the Shrine of Husayn's Head.[161][162] The shrine was described as the most magnificent building in Ashkelon.[163] During the British Mandate it was a "large maqam on top of a hill" with no tomb but a fragment of a pillar showing the place where the head had been buried.[164] Israeli Defense Forces under Moshe Dayan blew up Mashhad Nabi Husayn in July 1950 as part of a broader operation.[165] Around the year 2000, Isma'ilis from India built a marble platform there, on the grounds of the Barzilai Medical Center.[166][167][165] The head remained buried in Ashkelon until 1153 (for about 250 years) only. Fearing the crusaders, Ashkelon's ruler Sayf al-Mamlaka Tamim brought the head to Cairo on 31 August 1153 (8 Jumada al-Thani, AH 548).[168][167]
Modern historical views on motivations of Husayn
Vaglieri considers him to be motivated by ideology, saying that if the materials that have come down to us are authentic, they convey an image of person who is "convinced that he was in the right, stubbornly determined to achieve his ends..."
Others such as Wellhausen and Lammens, view his revolt as premature and ill-prepared,[173][174][17] while others like Heinz Halm see it as a struggle for political leadership among the second generation of Muslims.[83] Fred Donner, G. R. Hawting, and Hugh N. Kennedy consider Husayn's revolt an attempt to regain what his brother Hasan had renounced."[16][175][17]
Legacy
Politics
The first political use of the death of Husayn seems to have been during the revolt of Mukhtar, when he seized Kufa under the slogan of "Revenge for Husayn".[176][177] Although the Penitents had used the same slogan, they do not seem to have had a political program.[176] In order to enhance their legitimacy, Abbasid rulers claimed to have avenged the death of Husayn by dethroning the Umayyads.[178] During the early years of their rule, they also encouraged Muharram rituals.[179] Buyids, a Shi'a dynasty originally from Iran which later occupied the Abbasid capital Baghdad while accepting the Abbasid caliph's suzerainty,[180] promoted the public rituals of Muharram to portray themselves as patrons of religion and to strengthen the Shi'a identity in Iraq.[118] After taking over Iran in 1501, Safavids, who were previously a Sufi order, declared the state religion to be Twelver Shi'ism. In this regard, Karbala and Muharram rituals came to be a vehicle of Safavid propaganda and a means of consolidating the dynasty's Shi'a identity.[181] Riza Yildirim has claimed that the impetus of the Safvid revolution was the revenge of the death of Husayn.[182] The founder of the dynasty, Shah Ismail, considered himself to be the Mahdi (the twelfth Shi'a Imam) or his forerunner.[183][184] Similarly, Qajars also patronized Muharram rituals such as processions, taziya and majalis, to improve the relationship between the state and the public.[185]
Iranian Revolution
Karbala and Shi'a symbolism played a significant role in the Iranian Revolution of 1979.[186] In contrast to the traditional view of Shi'ism as a religion of suffering, mourning and political quietism, Shi'a Islam and Karbala were given a new interpretation in the period preceding the revolution by rationalist intellectuals and religious revisionists like Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, Ali Shariati and Nematollah Salehi Najafabadi.[187][188] According to these, Shi'ism was an ideology of revolution and political struggle against tyranny and exploitation,[189] and the Battle of Karbala and the death of Husayn was to be seen as a model for revolutionary struggle;[190] weeping and mourning was to be replaced by political activism to realize the ideals of Husayn.[191]
After the White Revolution reforms of the Iranian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, which were opposed by the Iranian clergy and others, Ruhollah Khomeini labelled the Shah as the Yazid of his time.[192][193] Shi'i beliefs and symbols were instrumental in orchestrating and sustaining widespread popular resistance with Husayn's story providing a framework for labeling as evil and reacting against the Pahlavi Shah.[194] Condemning the Iranian monarchy, Khomeini wrote: "The struggle of al-Husayn at Karbalâ is interpreted in the same way as a struggle against the non-Islamic principle of monarchy."
In art and literature
Literature
Maqtal literature and legendary accounts
Maqtal (pl. Maqatil) works narrate the story of someone's death.[205] Although Maqatil on the deaths of Ali, Uthman and various others have been written,[206] the Maqtal genre has focused mainly on the story of Husayn's death.[207][208]
As well as Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal, other Arabic Maqatil on Husayn were written.
Maqtal later entered Persian, Turkish, and Urdu literature, and inspired the development of rawda.[105]
Marthiya and rawda
When Shi'ism became the official religion of Iran in the 16th century, Safavid rulers such as Shah Tahmasp I, patronized poets who wrote about the Battle of Karbala.[215] The genre of marthiya (poems in the memory of the dead, with popular forms of Karbala related marthiya being rawda and nawha),[216] according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston, "was particularly cultivated by the Safavids."[215] Various Persian authors wrote texts retelling romanticized and synthesized versions of the battle and events from it,[128][217] including Sa'id al-Din's Rawdat al-Islam (The Garden of Islam) and Al-Khawarazmi's Maqtal nur 'al-'a'emmah (The Site of the Murder of the Light of the Imams). These influenced the composition of the more popular text Rawdat al-Shuhada (Garden of Martyrs), which was written in 1502 by Husain Wa'iz Kashefi.[217][128] Kashefi's composition was an effective factor in the development of rawda khwani, a ritual recounting of the battle events in majalis.[217]
Inspired by Rawdat al-Shuhada, the Azerbaijani poet
Urdu marthiya is predominantly religious in nature and usually concentrates on lamenting the Battle of Karbala. South Indian rulers of
Sufi poetry
In Sufism, where annihilation of the self (nafs) and suffering in the path of God are paramount principles, Husayn is seen as a model Sufi.[223] Persian Sufi poet Hakim Sanai describes Husayn as a martyr, higher in rank than all the other martyrs of the world; while Farid ud-Din Attar considers him a prototype of a Sufi who sacrificed himself in the love of God.[224] Jalal ud-Din Rumi describes Husayn's suffering at Karbala as a means to achieve union with the divine, and hence considers it to be a matter of jubilation rather than grief.[225] Sindhi Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai devoted a section in his Shah Jo Risalo to the death of Husayn, in which the incident is remembered in laments and elegies.[226] He too sees Husayn's death as a sacrifice made in the path of God, and condemns Yazid as being bereft of divine love.[227] Turkish Sufi Yunus Emre labels Husayn, along with his brother Hasan, as the "fountain head of the martyrs" and "Kings of the Paradise" in his songs.[228]
Ancestry
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See also
- Arba'een Pilgrimage
- Zuljanah, Husayn's horse
- Who is Hussain?
- The Hussaini Encyclopedia
- Al-Tall Al-Zaynabiyya
- Mokhtarnameh
References
Notes
- ^ Political supporters of Ali and his descendants (Alids).[16][17]
- ^ Meaning "the master of the youth of Paradise"
- ^ "see, for example, ṢaḥīḥMoslem, English tr. by A. H. Siddiqui, Lahore, 1975, IV, pp. 1293–94"
- ^ see L. Massignon, La Mubahala de Médine et l’hyperdulie de Fatima, Paris, 1935; idem, "Mubāhala," EI1, supplement, p. 150
- ^ The sincerity of Ibn al-Zubayr's advice has been doubted by many historians, however, as he had his own plans for leadership and was supposedly happy to be rid of Husayn.
- ^ Husayn at this point is reported to have considered turning back, but was persuaded to push forward by Ibn Aqil's brothers, who wanted to avenge his death;[53][45] according to Madelung and I. K. A. Howard, these reports are doubtful.[48][54]
- ^ Although forty-five horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers, or a total of a few hundred men have been reported by some sources.[63]
- ^ According to the Shi'a sources, however, more troops had joined Ibn Sa'd in preceding days, swelling his army to 30,000 strong.[15]
- ^ Other early monographs on the death of Husayn, which have not survived, were written by al-Asbagh al-Nubata, Jabir ibn Yazid al-Ju'fi, Ammar ibn Mu'awiya al-Duhni, Awana ibn al-Hakam, al-Waqidi, Hisham ibn al-Kalbi, Nasr ibn Muzahim, and al-Mada'ini; of these al-Nubta's monograph was perhaps the earliest.[94]
- ^ Nevertheless, four manuscripts of a Maqtal located at Gotha (No. 1836), Berlin (Sprenger, Nos. 159–160), Leiden (No. 792), and Saint Petersburg (Am No. 78) libraries have been attributed to Abu Mikhnaf.[99]
- ^ Theophilus's history corroborates the death in battle of Husayn and most of his men at Karbala after suffering from thirst. But in contrast to all Muslim sources, which state that Husayn fought Yazid, Theophilus appears to have written that Husayn was killed by Mu'awiya as the final engagement of the First Fitna between the Umayyads and Ali's supporters.[106]
- ^ Therefore Ali Zayn al-Abidin was considered "the son of the two elect" (ebn al-ḵīaratayn) among the Arabs and the Persians. This is generally accepted by the Shias, but early sources do not confirm it and some genealogists reject it.[136]
Citations
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- ^ a b c d e f g h al-Qarashi, Baqir Shareef (2007). The life of Imam Husain. Qum: Ansariyan Publications. p. 58.
- ^ Tirmidhi, Vol. II, p. 221; تاريخ الخلفاء، ص189 [History of the Caliphs]
- ^ A Brief History of The Fourteen Infallibles. Qum: Ansariyan Publications. 2004. p. 95.
- ^ Kitab al-Irshad. p. 198.
- ^ Fığlâlı & Üzün 1998, p. 518.
- ^ Reyshahri, Mohammad, Imam Hussain's encyclopedia in the Quran, Sunnah and History, Dar Al-Hadith Research Center, vol. 1, pg. 215
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- Rashidun caliphs).
- ^ a b c d e f g Veccia Vaglieri 1971
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Madelung 2004.
- ^ ISBN 978-0195793871.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, pp. 324–327
- ^ Dakake 2007, pp. 81–82.
- ^ a b c Munson 1988, p. 23.
- ^ a b c Donner 2010, p. 178.
- ^ a b c d e Kennedy 2004, p. 89.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 607
- ^ Poonawala & Kohlberg 1985
- ^ a b Madelung 2003.
- ^ a b c d Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 613.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 14–15
- ^ Vaglieri 1971
- ^ a b Haider 2016.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, pp. 15–16
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- ^ Vaglieri 1971, p. 241
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- ^ Faramarz 2013, p. 679
- ^ Tabatabaei, (1979), p.196.
- ^ Momen 1985, pp. 14, 26, 27
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 287
- ^ Lammens 1921, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 145–146.
- ^ Howard 1990, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Najm, Heydar (2004). al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib. Ehsan Yarshater, Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- ^ Howard 1990, pp. 5–7.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1901, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d Wellhausen 1901, p. 64.
- ^ a b Daftary 1990, p. 47.
- ^ a b c Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 608.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Madelung 2004, pp. 493–498.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 69.
- ^ Pishvaee, Mahdi. History of Qiam and Maqtal. Vol. 1. pp. 465–467. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- ^ Veccia Vaglieri 1971, pp. 607–615.
- ^ a b Halm 1997, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 609.
- ^ Howard 1986, p. 128.
- ^ Jafarian, Rasul. Political History of Islam. p. 461. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 93.
- ^ Bahramian, Ali. Hussain,Imam. Encyclopedia of the world of Islam. pp. 670–671. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- ^ Wellhausen 1901, p. 65.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1901, pp. 65–66.
- ^ a b Ayoub 1978, p. 111.
- ^ Howard 1990, pp. 112–114.
- ^ a b c d e f Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 610.
- ^ a b Ayoub 1978, p. 105.
- ^ a b c d Wellhausen 1901, p. 66.
- ^ Howard 1990, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 139.
- ^ a b Calmard 1982, pp. 77–79.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 611.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 153.
- ^ a b Howard 1990, p. 160.
- ^ a b c d e f Wellhausen 1901, p. 67.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 163.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 167.
- ^ Lammens 1921, p. 171.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 169.
- ^ Lammens 1921, p. 172.
- ^ Howard 1990, pp. 171–172.
- ^ Lammens 1921, p. 173.
- ^ Veccia Vaglieri 1971, p. 612.
- ^ Donner 2010, p. 179.
- ^ Ayoub 1978, p. 108.
- ^ a b Nakash 1993, p. 161.
- ^ a b c Halm 1997, p. 16.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1901, pp. 71–74.
- ^ Dixon 1971, p. 45.
- ^ Donner 2010, p. 185.
- ^ Hawting 2000, p. 53.
- ^ Dixon 1971, pp. 73–75.
- ^ Lammens 1921, p. 169.
- ^ a b Vaglieri 1971, p. 610.
- ^ Wellhausen 1901, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Wellhausen 1901, p. 70.
- ^ Howard 1986, pp. 131–133.
- ^ Howard 1986, pp. 124–125.
- ^ a b c Vaglieri 1971, p. 608.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. vii–viii.
- ^ Wellhausen 1901, p. 68.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. ix.
- ^ a b c Jafri 1979, p. 215.
- ^ Howard 1986, p. 126.
- ^ Howard 1986, p. 132.
- ^ Howard 1986, p. 125.
- ^ Howard 1986, pp. 139–142.
- ^ a b Halm 1997, p. 15.
- ^ a b c Günther 1994, p. 208.
- ^ Howard-Johnston 2010, p. 386.
- ^ Howard-Johnston 2010, pp. 195–198.
- ^ Faramarz 2013, p. 703
- ^ a b c Nakash 1993, p. 167.
- ^ Calmard 2004, pp. 498–502.
- ^ a b c Nakash 1993, p. 163.
- doi:10.1515/islam-2016-0008. Archived from the originalon 12 May 2020.
- ^ "The Prophet Eesa (Jesus)". thedawoodibohras.com. 10 August 2018. Archived from the original on 19 July 2020.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b Ayoub 1978, pp. 143–144.
- ^ Howard 1990, p. 164.
- ^ Nakash 1993, p. 164.
- ^ a b Aghaie 2004, p. 10.
- ^ Nakash 1993, p. 169.
- ^ Ayoub 1978, p. 154.
- ^ Ayoub 1978, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Pinault 2001, p. 113.
- ^ a b Halm 1997, p. 63.
- ^ a b Ayoub 1978, p. 155.
- ^ Pinault 2001, p. 18.
- ^ Halm 1997, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, p. 14.
- ^ a b c Hyder 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Nakash 1993, pp. 165, 181.
- ^ Gölz 2019, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Gölz 2019, p. 41.
- ^ Brunner 2013, p. 293.
- ^ سير أعلام النبلاء، لشمس الدين الذهبي، ومن صغار الصحابة، الحسين بن علي بن أبي طالب، جـ 3، صـ 280: 285، طبعة مؤسسة الرسالة، 2001م نسخة محفوظة 25 أبريل 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.
- ^ Husain: The great martyr by Fazl Ahmad
- ^ Present in both Sunni and Shia sources on basis of the hadith: "al-Ḥasan and al-Ḥusayn are the sayyids of the youth of Paradise".
- ^ a b Madelung 2011.
- ^ Faramarz 2013, pp. 677–678
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 383
- ^ Faramarz 2013, p. 665
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- ^ Faramarz 2013, p. 677
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- ^ a b c Hawting 2000, p. 50.
- ^ a b Ayoub 1978, pp. 134–135.
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- ^ Cole, Juan (27 February 2008). "Barack Hussein Obama, Omar Bradley, Benjamin Franklin and other Semitically Named American Heroes". Informed Comment. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2020. [self-published source]
- ^ "In a distant age and climate, the tragic scene of the death of Husein will awaken the sympathy of the coldest reader." The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 2, p. 218 Archived 2 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian memory, By Syed Akbar Hyder, Oxford University Press, p. 170.
- ^ Jafarian 1999, p. 493
- ^ Sachedina 1981, pp. 157–158.
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- ^ Williams, Caroline. 1983. "The Cult of 'Alid Saints in the Fatimid Monuments of Cairo. Part I: The Mosque of al-Aqmar". In Muqarnas I: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Oleg Grabar (ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press, 37–52. p.41, Wiet,"notes," pp. 217ff.; RCEA,7:260–63.
- ^ Safarname Ibne Batuta.
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- ^ Canaan, Taufik (1927). Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine. London: Luznac & Co. p. 151.
- ^ a b Rapoport, Meron (5 July 2007). "History Erased". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 21 March 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
- ^ Sacred Surprise behind Israel Hospital Archived 22 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine, by Batsheva Sobelman, special Los Angeles Times.
- ^ a b [1] Archived 3 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine; Prophet's grandson Hussein honoured on grounds of Israeli hospital
- ^ Brief History of Transfer of the Sacred Head of Hussain ibn Ali, From Damascus to Ashkelon to Qahera By: Qazi Dr. Shaikh Abbas Borhany PhD (USA), NDI, Shahadat al A'alamiyyah (Najaf, Iraq), M.A., LLM (Shariah) Member, Ulama Council of Pakistan. Published in Daily News, Karachi, Pakistan on 3 January 2009 [2] Archived 14 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
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- ^ a b Sharon 1983, pp. 104–105.
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- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 124.
- ^ Ayoub 1978, p. 153.
- ^ Arjomand 2016, p. 122.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, p. 11.
- ^ Yildirim 2015, p. 127.
- ^ Arjomand 2016, p. 306.
- ^ Yildirim 2015, pp. 128–129.
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{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help - ^ Halm 1997, p. 143.
- ^ Arjomand 2016, pp. 403–404.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, p. 87.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Halm 1997, p. 150.
- ^ Aghaie 2004, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Chaudhuri 2012, p. 108.
- ^ Schimmel 1986, p. 37.
- ^ Hyder 2006, p. 122.
- ^ Günther 1994, p. 193.
- ^ Günther 1994, p. 195.
- ^ Günther 1994, p. 204.
- ^ a b Sindawi 2002, p. 79.
- ^ Sindawi 2002, p. 81.
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- ^ Vaglieri 1971, p. 613.
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- ^ a b Thackston 1994, p. 79.
- ^ Hanaway 1991, pp. 608–609.
- ^ a b c Aghaie 2004, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Norris 1993, p. 179.
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- ^ Elsie 2005, p. 42.
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- ^ Schimmel 1986, p. 30.
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- ^ ISBN 9781608058884. Archivedfrom the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
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- ^ a b Peters, Francis E. (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 101. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
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{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
External links
- Al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī an article of Encyclopædia Britannica.
- hussain ibn 'Ali by Wilferd Madelung, an article of Encyclopædia Iranica.
- hussain ibn 'Ali in popular Shiism by Jean Calmard, an article of Encyclopædia Iranica.