Hyaluronic acid
Haworth projection
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Names | |
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IUPAC name
(1→4)-(2-Acetamido-2-deoxy-D-gluco)-(1→3)-D-glucuronoglycan
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Systematic IUPAC name
Poly{[(2S,3R,4R,5S,6R)-3-acetamido-5-hydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,4-diyl]oxy[(2R,3R,4R,5S,6S)-6-carboxy-3,4-dihydroxyoxane-2,5-diyl]oxy} | |
Identifiers | |
ChEBI | |
ChemSpider |
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ECHA InfoCard
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100.029.695 |
EC Number |
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PubChem CID
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UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |
(C14H21NO11)n | |
Pharmacology | |
D03AX05 (WHO) M09AX01 (WHO), R01AX09 (WHO), S01KA01 (WHO) | |
Related compounds | |
Related compounds
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Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Hyaluronic acid (
The average 70 kg (150 lb) person has roughly 15 grams of hyaluronan in the body, one third of which is turned over (i.e., degraded and synthesized) per day.[5]
As one of the chief components of the
Physiological function
Until the late 1970s, hyaluronic acid was described as a "
Hyaluronic acid is an important component of articular cartilage, where it is present as a coat around each cell (chondrocyte). When aggrecan monomers bind to hyaluronan in the presence of HAPLN1 (hyaluronic acid and proteoglycan link protein 1), large, highly negatively charged aggregates form. These aggregates imbibe water and are responsible for the resilience of cartilage (its resistance to compression). The molecular weight (size) of hyaluronan in cartilage decreases with age, but the amount increases.[13]
A lubricating role of hyaluronan in muscular connective tissues to enhance the sliding between adjacent tissue layers has been suggested. A particular type of fibroblasts, embedded in dense fascial tissues, has been proposed as being cells specialized for the biosynthesis of the hyaluronan-rich matrix. Their related activity could be involved in regulating the sliding ability between adjacent muscular connective tissues.[14]
Hyaluronic acid is also a major component of skin, where it is involved in repairing tissue. When skin is exposed to excessive
While it is abundant in extracellular matrices, hyaluronan also contributes to tissue hydrodynamics, movement, and proliferation of cells and participates in a number of
Although hyaluronan binds to receptor CD44, there is evidence hyaluronan degradation products transduce their inflammatory signal through
There are limitations including the in vivo loss of this compound limiting the duration of effect.[16]
Wound repair
As a major component of the
Granulation
Granulation tissue is the perfused, fibrous connective tissue that replaces a fibrin clot in healing wounds. It typically grows from the base of a wound and is able to fill wounds of almost any size it heals. HA is abundant in granulation tissue matrix. A variety of cell functions that are essential for tissue repair may attribute to this HA-rich network. These functions include facilitation of cell migration into the provisional wound matrix, cell proliferation, and organization of the granulation tissue matrix. Initiation of inflammation is crucial for the formation of granulation tissue; therefore, the pro-inflammatory role of HA as discussed above also contributes to this stage of wound healing.
Cell migration
Cell migration is essential for the formation of granulation tissue.
By providing the dynamic force to the cell, HA synthesis has also been shown to associate with cell migration.
Skin healing
HA plays an important role in the normal
In normal skin, HA is found in relatively high concentrations in the basal layer of the epidermis where proliferating keratinocytes are found.[21] CD44 is collocated with HA in the basal layer of epidermis where additionally it has been shown to be preferentially expressed on plasma membrane facing the HA-rich matrix pouches.[22] Maintaining the extracellular space and providing an open, as well as hydrated, structure for the passage of nutrients are the main functions of HA in epidermis. A report found HA content increases in the presence of retinoic acid (vitamin A).[21] The proposed effects of retinoic acid against skin photo-damage and photoaging may be correlated, at least in part, with an increase of skin HA content, giving rise to increased tissue hydration. It has been suggested that the free-radical scavenging property of HA contributes to protection against solar radiation, supporting the role of CD44 acting as a HA receptor in the epidermis.
Epidermal HA also functions as a manipulator in the process of keratinocyte proliferation, which is essential in normal epidermal function, as well as during reepithelization in tissue repair. In the wound healing process, HA is expressed in the wound margin, in the connective tissue matrix, and collocating with CD44 expression in migrating keratinocytes.
Medical uses
Hyaluronic acid has been FDA-approved to treat osteoarthritis of the knee via intra-articular injection.[23] A 2012 review showed that the quality of studies supporting this use was mostly poor, with a general absence of significant benefits, and that intra-articular injection of HA could possibly cause adverse effects.[24] A 2020 meta-analysis found that intra-articular injection of high molecular weight HA improved both pain and function in people with knee osteoarthritis.[25]
Hyaluronic acid has been used to treat
Hyaluronic acid is used to displace tissues away from tissues which are going to be subjected to radiation, for instance in one treatment option for some prostate cancers.[36]
Sources
Hyaluronic acid is produced on a large scale by extraction from animal tissues, such as chicken comb, and from Streptococci.[37]
Structure
Hyaluronic acid is a
Hyaluronic acid is energetically stable, in part because of the stereochemistry of its component disaccharides.[citation needed] Bulky groups on each sugar molecule are in sterically favored positions, whereas the smaller hydrogens assume the less-favorable axial positions.[citation needed]
Hyaluronic acid in aqueous solutions self-associates to form transient clusters in solution.[39] While it is considered a polyelectrolyte polymer chain, hyaluronic acid does not exhibit the polyelectrolyte peak, suggesting the absence of a characteristic length scale between the hyaluronic acid molecules and the emergence of a fractal clustering, which is due to the strong solvation of these molecules.[39]
Biological synthesis
Hyaluronic acid is synthesized by a class of
Hyaluronic acid synthesis has been shown to be inhibited by 4-methylumbelliferone (hymecromone), a 7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin derivative.[43] This selective inhibition (without inhibiting other
Bacillus subtilis recently has been genetically modified to culture a proprietary formula to yield hyaluronans,[46] in a patented process producing human-grade product.
Fasciacyte
A fasciacyte is a type of biological cell that produces hyaluronan-rich extracellular matrix and modulates the gliding of muscle fasciae.[41]
Fasciacytes are fibroblast-like cells found in fasciae. They are round-shaped with rounder nuclei and have less elongated cellular processes when compared with fibroblasts. Fasciacytes are clustered along the upper and lower surfaces of a fascial layer.
Fasciacytes produce hyaluronan, which regulates fascial gliding.[41]
Biosynthetic mechanism
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a linear glycosaminoglycan (GAG), an anionic, gel-like, polymer, found in the extracellular matrix of epithelial and connective tissues of vertebrates. It is part of a family of structurally complex, linear, anionic polysaccharides.[7] The carboxylate groups present in the molecule make it negatively charged, therefore allowing for successful binding to water, and making it valuable to cosmetic and pharmaceutical products.[47]
HA consists of repeating β4-glucuronic acid (GlcUA)-β3-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) disaccharides, and is synthesized by hyaluronan synthases (HAS), a class of integral membrane proteins that produce the well-defined, uniform chain lengths characteristic to HA.[47] There are three existing types of HASs in vertebrates: HAS1, HAS2, HAS3; each of these contribute to elongation of the HA polymer.[7] For an HA capsule to be created, this enzyme must be present because it polymerizes UDP-sugar precursors into HA. HA precursors are synthesized by first phosphorylating glucose by hexokinase, yielding glucose-6-phosphate, which is the main HA precursor.[48] Then, two routes are taken to synthesize UDP-n-acetylglucosamine and UDP-glucuronic acid which both react to form HA. Glucose-6-phosphate gets converted to either fructose-6-phosphate with hasE (phosphoglucoisomerase), or glucose-1-phosphate using pgm (α -phosphoglucomutase), where those both undergo different sets of reactions.[48]
UDP-glucuronic acid and UDP-n-acetylglucosamine get bound together to form HA via hasA (HA synthase).[47]
Synthesis of UDP-glucuronic acid
UDP-glucuronic acid is formed from hasC (UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase) converting glucose-1-P into UDP-glucose, which then reacts with hasB (UDP-glucose dehydrogenase) to form UDP-glucuronic acid.[47]
Synthesis of N-acetyl glucosamine
The path forward from fructose-6-P utilizes glmS (amidotransferase) to form glucosamine-6-P. Then, glmM (Mutase) reacts with this product to form glucosamine-1-P. hasD (acetyltransferase) converts this into n-acetylglucosamine-1-P, and finally, hasD (pyrophosphorylase) converts this product into UDP-n-acetylglucosamine.[48]
Final step: Two disaccharides form hyaluronic acid
UDP-glucuronic acid and UDP-n-acetylglucosamine get bound together to form HA via hasA (HA synthase), completing the synthesis.[48]
Degradation
Hyaluronic acid can be degraded by a family of enzymes called
Hyaluronan can also be degraded via non-enzymatic reactions. These include acidic and alkaline hydrolysis, ultrasonic disintegration, thermal decomposition, and degradation by oxidants.[52]
Etymology
Hyaluronic acid is derived from hyalos (Greek for vitreous, meaning ‘glass-like’) and
History
Hyaluronic acid was first obtained by Karl Meyer and John Palmer in 1934 from the vitreous body in a cow's eye.[54] The first hyaluronan biomedical product, Healon, was developed in the 1970s and 1980s by Pharmacia,[55] and approved for use in eye surgery (i.e., corneal transplantation, cataract surgery, glaucoma surgery, and surgery to repair retinal detachment). Other biomedical companies also produce brands of hyaluronan for ophthalmic surgery.[56]
Native hyaluronic acid has a relatively short half-life (shown in rabbits)[57] so various manufacturing techniques have been deployed to extend the length of the chain and stabilise the molecule for its use in medical applications. The introduction of protein-based cross-links,[58] the introduction of free-radical scavenging molecules such as sorbitol,[59] and minimal stabilisation of the HA chains through chemical agents such as NASHA (non-animal stabilised hyaluronic acid)[60] are all techniques that have been used to preserve its shelf life.[61]
In the late 1970s, intraocular lens implantation was often followed by severe
The name "hyaluronan" is also used for a salt.[64]
Other animals
Hyaluronan is used in
According to Canadian regulation, hyaluronan in HY-50 preparation should not be administered to animals to be slaughtered for horse meat.[66] In Europe, however, the same preparation is not considered to have any such effect, and edibility of the horse meat is not affected.[67]
Research
Due to its high
Due to its ability to regulate angiogenesis by stimulating endothelial cells to proliferate in vitro, hyaluronan can be used to create hydrogels to study vascular morphogenesis.[74]
See also
References
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External links
- )
- Hyaluronan at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)