Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as
As of April 2020[update], over 17 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since their inception in 1997.[7][8] Japan has the world's largest hybrid electric vehicle fleet with 7.5 million hybrids registered as of March 2018[update].[9] Japan also has the world's highest hybrid market penetration with hybrids representing 19.0% of all passenger cars on the road as of March 2018[update], both figures excluding kei cars.[9][10] As of December 2020[update], the U.S. ranked second with cumulative sales of 5.8 million units since 1999,[11] and, as of July 2020[update], Europe listed third with 3.0 million cars delivered since 2000.[12]
Global sales are led by the
Classification
Types of powertrain
Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is supplied to the drivetrain:
- In BAS Hybrid) system found in the Chevrolet Malibu hybrids are examples of production parallel hybrids.[18] The internal combustion engine of many parallel hybrids can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging. As of 2013[update], commercialized parallel hybrids use a full size combustion engine with a single, small (<20 kW) electric motor and small battery pack as the electric motor is designed to supplement the main engine, not to be the sole source of motive power from launch. But after 2015 parallel hybrids with over 50 kW are available, enabling electric driving at moderate acceleration. Parallel hybrids are more efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during urban stop-and-go conditions where the electric motor is permitted to contribute,[18]and during highway operation.
- In generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. They also usually have a larger battery pack than parallel hybrids, making them more expensive. Once the batteries are low, the small combustion engine can generate power at its optimum settings at all times, making them more efficient in extensive city driving.[18]
- Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel characteristics. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because series hybrids tend to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel tend to be more efficient at high speeds; however, the cost of power-split hybrid is higher than a pure parallel.[18] Examples of power-split (referred to by some as "series-parallel") hybrid powertrains include 2007 models of Ford, General Motors, Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota.[18][19]
In each of the hybrids above it is common to use regenerative braking to recharge the batteries.
Type of hybridization
- Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path allowing greater flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity.
- Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that cannot be driven solely on its electric motor, because the electric motor does not have enough power to propel the vehicle on its own.[20][21] Mild hybrids include only some of the features found in hybrid technology, and usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle.[20][21] A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. The motor is often mounted between the engine and transmission, taking the place of the torque converter, and is used to supply additional propulsion energy when accelerating. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the gasoline engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hybrids have smaller batteries and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows manufacturers to reduce cost and weight.[21]
Saturn Aura Greenline, the 2008-2009 Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid and the 2013–2014 Chevrolet Malibu Eco.[21]
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
A
Flex-fuel hybrid
In December 2018, Toyota do Brasil announced the development of the world's first commercial hybrid electric car with flex-fuel engine capable of running with electricity and ethanol fuel or gasoline. The flexible fuel hybrid technology was developed in partnership with several Brazilian federal universities, and a prototype was tested for six months using a Toyota Prius as development mule.[24] Toyota announced plans to start series production of a flex hybrid electric car for the Brazilian market in the second half of 2019.[24][25]
The twelfth generation of the Corolla line-up was launched in Brazil in September 2019, which included an Altis trim with the first version of a flex-fuel hybrid powered by a 1.8-litre Atkinson engine.[26] By February 2020, sales of the Corolla Altis flex-fuel hybrid represented almost 25% of all Corolla sales in the country.[27]
Energy Management Systems
To take advantage of the emission reduction potential of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), appropriate design of their energy management systems (EMSs) to control the power flow between the engine and the battery is essential.[28]
In a conventional (non-hybrid) vehicle, there is no need for an energy management strategy: the driver decides the instant power delivery using the brake and accelerator pedals and, in manual transmission vehicles, decides which gear is engaged at any time. In a hybrid vehicle, on the other hand, there is an additional decision that must be taken due to its ability to recover energy during braking or driving downhill: how much power is delivered by each of the energy sources on-board of the vehicle. The recovered energy can be stored in the battery and deployed at a later time to assist the prime mover to provide tractive power. This is why all hybrid vehicles include an energy management controller, interposed between the driver and the component controllers. As mentioned, the aim of the energy management system is to determine the optimal power split between the on-board energy sources. The decision regarding what to consider optimal depends on the specific application: in most cases, the strategies tend to minimize the fuel consumption, but optimization objectives could also include the minimization of pollutant emissions, maximization of battery life or—in general—a compromise among all the above goals.[29]
History
Early days
William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid-1889.
In 1896, the Armstrong Phaeton was developed by Harry E. Dey and built by the Armstrong Company of Bridgeport, CT for the Roger Mechanical Carriage Company. Though there were steam, electric, and internal combustion vehicles introduced in the early days, the Armstrong Phaeton was innovative with many firsts. Not only did it have a gasoline powered 6.5-liter, two-cylinder engine, but also a dynamo flywheel connected to an onboard battery. The dynamo and regenerative braking were used to charge the battery. Its electric starter was used 16 years before Cadillac's. The dynamo also provided ignition spark and powered the electric lamps. The Phaeton also had the first semi-automatic transmission (no manual clutch). The exhaust system was an integrated structural component of the vehicle. The Armstrong Phaeton's motor was too powerful; the torque damaged the carriage wheels repeatedly.[34]
In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory,
In 1931,
During the Second World War, Ferdinand Porsche sought to use his firm's experience in hybrid drivetrain design for powering armored fighting vehicles for Nazi Germany. A series of designs, starting with the
Predecessors of present technology
The
A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by
In 1979 the Fiat 131 Ibrido was presented in Detroit,[47][48] a marching prototype made by the CRF (Fiat Research Center). The engine compartment was composed by the 903cc borrowed from the Fiat 127, set to output 33 hp only and coupled to a 20 kW electric motor. The scheme proposed by Fiat is defined as "parallel hybrid": the petrol engine is connected to the differential with a 1:1 direct gear ratio, without gearbox, instead of the clutch there was an 8-inch torque converter followed by the transmission shaft on which the rotor of the electric motor is keyed, the latter powered by a 12-batteries pack.
The regenerative brake concept was further developed in the early 1980s by David Arthurs, an
In 1982, Fritz Karl Preikschat invented an electric propulsion and braking system for cars based on regenerative braking.[51] While clearly not the only patent relating to the hybrid electric vehicle, the patent was important based on 120+ subsequent patents directly citing it.[51] The patent was issued in the U.S. and the system was not prototyped or commercialized.
In 1988,
In 1989,
Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the
Research and Development was advancing in the 1990s with projects such as the early BMW 5 Series (E34) CVT hybrid-electric vehicle [53] In 1992, Volvo ECC was developed by Volvo. The Volvo ECC was built on the Volvo 850 platform. In contrast to most production hybrids, which use a gasoline piston engine to provide additional acceleration and to recharge the battery storage, the Volvo ECC used a gas turbine engine to drive the generator for recharging.
The
1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed to finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year.
Modern hybrids
This section may be too long and excessively detailed. (August 2021) |
Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched in Japan in 1997, and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and Japan.[4] The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the world in 2000.[58] The first-generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economy of 52 miles per US gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg‑imp) in the city and 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg‑imp) in highway driving. The two-door first-generation Insight was estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg‑imp) in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 82 mpg‑imp) on the highway.[4]
The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997 and 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwide Prius sales reached the one million mark in April 2008.[58] By early 2010, the Prius global cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units.[59][60] Toyota launched a second-generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009.[61] The 2010 Prius has an estimated U.S. Environmental Protection Agency combined fuel economy cycle of 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp).[61][62]
The
The
The
In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a
In 2007,
Commencing in fall 2007,
The
Latest developments
This section may be too long and excessively detailed. (August 2021) |
- 2009–2010
The
The
Sales of the
The 2011
- 2011–2015
The
The
Other hybrids released in the U.S. during 2012 are the
Global sales of the Toyota Prius liftback passed the 3 million milestone in June 2013. The Prius liftbak is available in almost 80 countries and regions, and it is the world's best-selling hybrid electric vehicle.
Sales of the
The redesigned and more efficient
Sales and rankings
This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. (December 2023) |
As of April 2020[update], more than 17 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since their inception in 1997.[7][8] Japan ranks as the market leader with more than 7.5 million hybrids sold as of March 2018[update],[9] followed by the United States with cumulative sales of 5.4 million units through 2019[120] while 3.0 million hybrid cars had been sold in Europe by July 2020.[12] Hybrid sales in the rest of the world totaled over 500,000 units by April 2016.[8] As of August 2014[update], more than 130,000 hybrids have been sold in Canada, of which, over 100,000 are Toyota and Lexus models.[121] In Australia, over 50,000 Lexus and Toyota models have been sold through February 2014.[122][123]
As of January 2020[update], global hybrid sales led by
TMC experienced record sales of hybrid cars during 2013, with 1,279,400 units sold worldwide, and it took nine months to achieve one million hybrid sales.[130][131] Again in 2014, TMC sold a record one million hybrids in nine months.[132] Toyota hybrids combined with Lexus models reached 1 million units in May 2007,[133] and the U.S. reached the 1 million mark of sales of both brands by February 2009.[134] Worldwide sales of TMC hybrids totaled over 2 million vehicles by August 2009,[133] 3 million units by February 2011,[135] 5 million in March 2013,[136] 7 million in September 2014,[132] and the 8 million mark in July 2015.[137] The 9 million sales mark was reached in April 2016, again, selling one million hybrids in just ninth months,[138] and the 10 million milestone in January 2017, achieved one more time just nine months after the previous million.[16] TMC achieved the 15 million sales milestone in January 2020.[7]
Ford experienced record sales of its hybrids models in the U.S. during 2013, with almost 80,000 units sold, almost triple the 2012 total.[139] During the second quarter of 2013 Ford achieved its best hybrid sales quarter ever, up 517% over the same quarter of 2012.[140] In 2013 Toyota's hybrid market share in the U.S. declined from 2012 totals due to new competition, particularly from Ford with the arrival of new products such as the C-Max Hybrid and the new styling of the Fusion. Except for the Prius c, sales of the other models of the Prius family and the Camry Hybrid suffered a decline from 2012, while the Fusion Hybrid experienced a 164.3% increase from 2012, and C-Max Hybrid sales climbed 156.6%.[125] During 2013 Ford increased its market share of the American hybrid market from 7.5% in 2012 to 14.7% in 2013.[125][141]
As of January 2017[update], global hybrid sales are led by the
Global sales of Lexus brand hybrid vehicles worldwide reached the 500,000 mark in November 2012.
Annual sales in top markets
Country | Number of hybrids sold or registered by year | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008[145] | 2007[146] | ||
Japan | 633,200(1)[138] | Over 1 million[115] | 679,100(1)[147] | 678,000(1)[148] | 316,300(1)[148] | 392,200(1)[148] | 334,000[149] | 94,259 | 69,015 | |
US | 384,404[150] | 452,152[126] | 495,771[126] | 434,498[109] | 268,752[151] | 274,210[152] | 290,271[152] | 312,386[152] | 352,274[152] | |
France(2) | 56,030[153] | 41,208[153] | 46,785[154] | 27,730[155] | 13,340[156] | 9,443[157] | 9,399[158] | 9,137[158] | 7,268[159] | |
UK | 44,580[160] | 37,215[161] | 29,129[161] | 24,900[162] | 23,391[163] | 22,127[164] | 14,645[165] | 15,385[165] | 15,971[165] | |
Italy | 25,240[153] | 21,154[153] | 14,695[166] | 5,885[167] | 5,244[168] | |||||
Germany | 22,529[169] | 22,908[170] | 24,963[171] | 21,438[172] | 12,622[173] | 10,661[174] | 8,374[174] | 6,464[174] | 7,591[174] | |
Spain | 18,406[153] | 12,083[153] | 10,294[175] | 10,030[176] | 10,350[177] | |||||
Netherlands | 13,752[178] | 10,341[179] | 18,356[180] | 19,519[181][182] | 14,874[168] | 16,111[183] | 16,122[184] | 11,837[184] | 3,013[184] | |
Canada | Not available | ~15,000[185] | ~25,000[186] | Not available | 16,167[187] | 19,963[188] | 14,828 | |||
World | Over 1.2 million | Over 1.6 million | Over 1.3 million | Over 1.2 million | - | - | 740,000[189] | 511,758 | 500,405 | |
Notes: (1) Partial sales, includes only Toyota/Lexus sales.[148] (2) French registrations between 2011 and 2013 include plug-in hybrids |
Japanese market
Japan has the largest hybrid electric vehicle fleet in the world, as of March 2018[update], a total of 7.51 million hybrids registered in the country, excluding kei cars.[9] By 20106 it represented around 45% of cumulative global hybrid sales since their inception in 1997.[8] After 18 years since their introduction in the Japanese market, annual hybrid sales surpassed the 1 million mark for the first time in 2014. With cumulative sales of over 4 million hybrids through December 2014, Japan surpassed the United States as the world's largest hybrid market.[8][115][116] It was also the first time that all eight major Japanese manufacturers offered hybrid vehicles in their lineup.[116]
Japan also has the world's highest hybrid market penetration,[10] as of March 2018[update], hybrids represented 19.0% of all passenger cars on the road.[9] The hybrid market share of new car sales began to increase significantly in 2009, when the government implemented aggressive fiscal incentives for fuel efficient vehicles and the third generation Prius was introduced. That year, the hybrid market share of new car sales in the country, including kei cars, jumped from less than 5% in 2008 to over 10% in 2009. If only conventional passenger cars are accounted for, the hybrid market share was about 15%. By 2013 the hybrid market share accounted for more than 30% of the 2.9 million standard passenger vehicles sold, and about 20% of the 4.5 million passenger vehicles including kei cars.[193] Sales of standard cars in 2016 totaled 1.49 million units, with the hybrid segment achieving a record 38% market share. Accounting for kei cars, hybrids achieved a market share of 25.7% of new passenger car sales, up from 22.3% in 2015.[10] In 2016 every one of the standard cars listed in the Japanese top-20 best-selling car ranking had a hybrid version on sale.[10] and the two top-selling standard cars were models available only as a hybrid, the Toyota Prius and the Toyota Aqua.[194]
Hybrid sales in Japan almost tripled in 2009 as compared to 2008 as a result of government incentives that included a scrappage program, tax breaks on hybrid vehicles and other low-emission cars and trucks, and a higher levy on gasoline that rose prices in the order of US$4.50.[59][189][200] New hybrid car sales jumped from 94,259 in 2008[145] to 334,000 in 2009,[149] and hybrid sales in 2009 represented around 10% of new vehicles sales in Japan. In contrast, the U.S. market share was 2.8% for the same year.[59] These record sales allowed Japan to surpass the U.S. in total new hybrid sales, with the Japanese market representing almost half (48%) of the worldwide hybrid sales in 2009 while the U.S. market represented 42% of global sales.[149] The Toyota Prius became the first hybrid to top annual new car sales in Japan with 208,876 units sold in 2009.[59][201] The Insight ranked fifth in overall sales in 2009 with 93,283 units sold.[59]
A total of 315,669 Priuses were sold domestically in 2010, making the Prius the country's best-selling vehicle for the second straight year. Also the Prius broke Japan's annual sales record for a single model for the first time in 20 years, surpassing the
The Toyota Aqua, released in December 2011, ranked as the second top-selling new car in Japan in 2012 after the conventional Prius.[207] Totaling 262,367 units sold in 2013, the Aqua topped new car sales in Japan in 2013, including kei car sales.[190] And with 233,209 units sold during 2014, down 11.1% from 2013, the Aqua was the top-selling new car in Japan for the second consecutive year.[191] Again in 2015, with 215,525 units sold, down 7.6% from 2014, the Aqua ranked as the top-selling new car in Japan.[192] The Toyota Aqua not only was the best-selling new car in Japan for three years running, from 2013 to 2015,[190][191][192] but it is considered the most successful nameplate launch in the Japanese market of the last 20 years.[208] In the first quarter of 2016, the Prius liftback surpassed the Aqua as the best-selling new car,[209] the Prius ended 2016 as the best-selling standard car in the Japanese market with 248,258 units, followed by the Aqua with 168,208 units.[194][210]
American market
The market of
Since their inception in 1999, a total of 5,374,000 hybrid electric automobiles and
European market
As of July 2020[update], more than 3.0 million hybrids cars have been sold in Europe since their introduction.
As of December 2014[update], hybrid vehicles accounted for 1.4% of new passenger car registrations in the
Sales of hybrids in Europe went up from around 9,000 units in 2004 to 39,880 in 2006, with Toyota accounting for 91% of hybrid sales and Honda with 3,410 units sold that year. Cumulative sales of Toyota hybrids since 2000 reached 69,674 units in 2006, while Honda hybrid sales reached over 8,000 units.
Toyota's European hybrid sales reached 70,529 vehicles in 2010, including sales of 15,237
During the first nine months of 2013, over 118,000 hybrids were sold in
Cumulative TMC sales since the Prius introduction in Europe in 2000 passed the one million unit milestone in November 2015.
- UK
Since 2006 hybrid car registrations in the UK totaled 257,404 units up to April 2016, including 11,679 diesel-electric hybrids, which were introduced in 2011.[160][161][162][163][164][165][229] The market share of the British hybrid segment climbed from 1.1% in 2010, to 1.2% in 2012, and achieved 1.5% of new car registrations in 2014.[216]
Since 2000, when the Prius was launched in the UK, 100,000 Toyota hybrids had been sold by May 2014, and almost 50,000 Lexus models since the introduction of the RX 400h in 2005.[230] Honda had sold in the UK more than 22,000 hybrid cars through December 2011 since the Insight was launched in the country in 2000.[231] After 15 years since the launch of the Prius in the British market, combined sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrids reached the 200,000 unit milestone in November 2015.[232]
A total of 37,215 hybrids were registered in 2014, and while petrol-electric hybrids increased 32.6% from 2013, diesel-electric hybrids declined 12.6%.[161] Hybrid registrations totaled a record of 44,580 units in 2015, consisting of 40,707 petrol-powered hybrids and 3,873 powered by diesel; the latter experienced a 36.3% increase from 2014, while petrol-powered hybrid grew by 18.1%. The hybrid segment market shared reached 1.69% of new car registrations in the UK that year.[160]
- France
A total of 165,915 hybrid cars have been registered in France between 2007 and 2014,
Diesel hybrid technology, introduced by
- The Netherlands
As of 31 December 2015[update], hybrid car registrations totaled 131,011 units, up 11.7% from 117,259 a year earlier.[178] By the end of 2009 there were about 39,300 hybrid cars registered in the Netherlands, up from 23,000 the previous year. Most of the registered hybrid cars belonged to corporate fleets due to tax incentives established in the country in 2008.[235][236] During the first eight months of 2013, around 65% of TMC cars sold in the Netherlands have been hybrids, with the technology particularly popular among fleet owners and taxi drivers.[237] Following the same market trend as in 2014, more plug-in hybrids were registered in 2015 (41,226) in the country than conventional hybrids (13,752).[178][179]
As a result of the tax incentives, the country has had for several years the highest hybrid
- Germany
As of January 2016[update], there were 130,365 hybrid cars registered in Germany,[238] up from 85,575 on the roads on January 1, 2014,[239] and 47,642 vehicles on January 1, 2012.[240] Hybrid car registrations totaled a record of 24,963 units in 2013,[171] and declined to 22,908 in 2014,[170] and to 22,529 in 2015.[169] The German hybrid market share climbed from 0.3% in 2010, to 0.8% in 2013, and declined 0.7% of new car registrations in 2014.[216]
- Spain
A total of 10,350 hybrid cars were registered in Spain in 2011, up 22% from 2010 sales. The top-selling hybrids were the Toyota Prius, Toyota Auris HSD and the
- Republic of Ireland
As of February 2020, Hybrid cars as a proportion of all cars for sale in Ireland was very small, which could be seen in a snapshot (7 February 2020) of four car sales websites (Autotrader.ie, Carsireland.ie, Carzone.ie, and Donedeal.ie) that showed that out of circa 38,000 to 70,000 cars listed for sale, only circa 3.7% to 4.7% were Hybrids (including a small proportion of electric plug-in hybrids (PHEV)), so in real terms only 1,844-2,640 hybrid cars were advertised for sale in the market.
This very low level of Hybrids compared poorly to the circa 25,338 to 46,940 diesel engine cars available for sale on the same date, representing a much larger, circa 64-67% of the market at that time.
The Irish Government (to January 2020) had stated an aim to ban the sale of petrol, diesel and hybrid new ('non-electric') cars from 2030 (compared to the proposed EU ban by 2040, and the UK's proposed ban on the sale of new petrol, diesel and hybrid cars from 2035 as announced in the first week of February, 2020), though car dealers were reported to consider the Irish Government's target for one million electric and plug-in hybrid cars to be in use by 2030, as far too ambitious (The Irish Times, 07/02/2020).
A compromise in terms of transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs), and a non-electric car ban implementation around 2030, maybe for acceptance of Hybrid cars with modest size petrol engines (regardless of whether 'Full' or 'Mild' hybrids), for example those at/ less than 1.6Litre (1600cc) engine capacity, and/ or at circa 100g/km CO2, or less in terms of emissions, or a fuel efficiency rating (L/100 km) for Highway/Extra Urban and 'Combined' journeys.
Technology
The varieties of hybrid electric designs can be differentiated by the structure of the hybrid vehicle drivetrain, the fuel type, and the mode of operation.
In 2007, several automobile manufacturers announced that future vehicles will use aspects of hybrid electric technology to reduce fuel consumption without the use of the hybrid drivetrain. Regenerative braking can be used to recapture energy and stored to power electrical accessories, such as air conditioning. Shutting down the engine at idle can also be used to reduce fuel consumption and reduce emissions without the addition of a hybrid drivetrain. In both cases, some of the advantages of hybrid electric technology are gained while additional cost and weight may be limited to the addition of larger batteries and starter motors. There is no standard terminology for such vehicles, although they may be termed mild hybrids.
Engines and fuel sources
Gasoline
Diesel
The most prominent example of a full hybrid diesel system is the
At the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009 both Mercedes and BMW displayed diesel-electric hybrids.[243]
So far, production diesel-electric engines have mostly[
FedEx, along with Eaton Corp. in the US and Iveco in Europe, has begun deploying a small fleet of Hybrid diesel electric delivery trucks.[245] As of October 2007, Fedex operates more than 100 diesel electric hybrids in North America, Asia and Europe.[246]
Human power
There are bicycles that consist of an electric motor fitted turned by a generator powered from pedals almost similar to but different from pedal only bicycles. It also combines an Electric battery to store surplus power which can be charged from regenerative braking, from battery chargers like a Battery electric vehicle or Plug-in hybrid and also from the pedal powered generator just like in an internal combustion engine vehicle that uses the engine to charge the battery. It is quite likely that such vehicles are considered hybrids since power to the electric motor is coming from two sources (i.e. pedal power via a generator and battery power)).
- Liquefied petroleum gas
Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be used in cars in two ways: a source of combustible heat, or a source of electrons for an electric motor. The burning of hydrogen is not being developed in practical terms; it is the hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicle (HFEV) which is garnering all the attention.
An HFEV is an all-electric car featuring an open-source battery in the form of a hydrogen tank and the atmosphere. HFEVs may also comprise closed-cell batteries for the purpose of power storage from regenerative braking, but this does not change the source of the motivation. It implies the HFEV is an electric car with two types of batteries. Since HFEVs are purely electric, and do not contain any type of heat engine, they are not hybrids.
Solar power
Some vehicles like mostly cars and occasionally other vehicles combine the solar photovoltaic cell propulsion system with an electric battery that is charged by the solar panel or sometimes like plug-in hybrid vehicles can also be charged from the power grid. These types of vehicles are technically hybrids, although they consist of two types of cells, since both of them use different fuels. The advantage of combining the two systems is that the vehicle can function with the battery if there is no sunlight and also reduces the risk of getting stuck on the road in case of a battery depletion since the solar panels charge the battery simultaneously.
Bio-fuels
Hybrid vehicles might use an
The
Design considerations
In some cases, manufacturers are producing HEVs that use the added energy provided by the hybrid systems to give vehicles a power boost, rather than significantly improved fuel efficiency compared to their traditional counterparts.[254] The trade-off between added performance and improved fuel efficiency is partly controlled by the software within the hybrid system and partly the result of the engine, battery and motor size. In the future, manufacturers may provide HEV owners with the ability to partially control this balance (fuel efficiency vs. added performance) as they wish, through a user-controlled setting.[255] Toyota announced in January, 2006 that it was considering a "high-efficiency" button.[citation needed]
Conversion kits
One can buy a stock hybrid or convert a stock petroleum car to a hybrid electric vehicle using an
Environmental impact
Fuel consumption
Electric hybrids reduce petroleum consumption under certain circumstances, compared to otherwise similar conventional vehicles, primarily by using three mechanisms:[257]
- Reducing wasted energy during idle/low output, generally by turning the ICE off
- Recapturing waste energy (i.e. regenerative braking)
- Reducing the size and power of the ICE, and hence inefficiencies from under-utilization, by using the added power from the electric motor to compensate for the loss in peak power output from the smaller ICE.
Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be used in different vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power, emissions, weight and cost profiles. The ICE in an HEV can be smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for slightly above average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive system in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and power, but an ICE's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of operation, making conventional vehicles inefficient. On the contrary, in most HEV designs, the ICE operates closer to its range of highest efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electric motors is better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially greater torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The greater fuel economy of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum consumption and vehicle air pollution emissions worldwide[258]
Many hybrids use the Atkinson cycle, which gives greater efficiency, but less power for the size of engine.
Noise
Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of the electric motor at idling and low speeds, leading to
A 2009 study conducted by the NHTSA found that crashes involving pedestrian and bicyclist have higher incidence rates for hybrids than internal combustion engine vehicles in certain vehicle maneuvers. These accidents commonly occurred on in zones with low speed limits, during daytime and in clear weather.[263]
In January 2010 the
As of mid-2010, and in advance of upcoming legislation, some carmakers announced their decision to address this safety issue shared by regular hybrids and all types of
There is also
Top ten EPA-rated hybrids
The following table shows the fuel economy ratings and pollution indicators for the top ten most fuel efficient hybrids rated by the
Vehicle | Year model |
EPA Combined mpg ) |
EPA City (mpg) |
EPA Highway (mpg) |
Annual fuel cost (1) ( USD ) |
Tailpipe CO2) |
EPA Air Pollution (2)Score |
Annual Petroleum Use (barrel) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Toyota Prius Eco |
2016 | 56 | 58 | 53 | US$650 | 158 | NA | 5.9 |
Toyota Prius (4th gen) | 2016 | 52 | 54 | 50 | US$700 | 170 | NA | 6.3 |
Toyota Prius c |
2015/16 | 50 | 53 | 46 | US$700 | 178 | 7/8* | 6.6 |
Toyota Prius (3rd gen) | 2015 | 50 | 51 | 48 | US$700 | 179 | 7/9* | 6.6 |
Honda Accord (2nd gen) | 2015 | 47 | 50 | 45 | US$750 | 188 | 7/8* | 7.0 |
Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid |
2016 | 46 | 47 | 46 | US$750 | 212 | 7/8* | 7.8 |
Honda Civic Hybrid (3rd gen) |
2015 | 45 | 44 | 47 | US$800 | 196 | 7/9* | 7.3 |
Volkswagen Jetta Hybrid |
2015 | 45 | 42 | 48 | US$950 | 200 | 7/9* | 7.3 |
2016 | 44 | 42 | 48 | 7.5 | ||||
Ford Fusion (2nd gen) | 2015/16 | 42 | 44 | 41 | US$850 | 211 | 7/9* | 7.8 |
2017 | 42 | 43 | 41 | 210 | 9/10 | |||
Toyota Prius v |
2015/16 | 42 | 44 | 40 | US$850 | 211 | 7/8* | 7.8 |
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency[280]
Notes: (1) Estimates assumes 15,000 miles (24,000 km) per year (45% highway, 55% city) using average fuel price of US$2.34/gallon for regular gasoline and US$2.57/gallon for premium gasoline (national average as of 7 June 2016[update]). (2) All states except California and Northeastern states, * otherwise.[280] |
Vehicle types
Motorcycles
Companies such as
Also, eCycle Inc produces series
SEMA has announced that Yamaha is going to launch one in 2010, with Honda following a year later, fueling a competition to reign in new customers and set new standards for mobility. Each company hopes to provide the capability to reach 60 miles (97 km) per charge by adopting advanced lithium-ion batteries to accomplish their claims. These proposed hybrid motorcycles could incorporate components from the upcoming Honda Insight car and its hybrid powertrain. The ability to mass-produce these items helps to overcome the investment hurdles faced by start-up brands and bring new engineering concepts into mainstream markets.[283]
Automobiles and light trucks
High-performance cars
As emissions regulations become tougher for manufacturers to adhere to, a new generation of high-performance cars will be powered by hybrid technology (for example the Porsche GT3 hybrid racing car). Aside from the emissions benefits of a hybrid system, the immediately available torque which is produced from electric motor(s) can lead to performance benefits by addressing the power curve weaknesses of a traditional combustion engine.
Formula One
Since 2014, Formula One cars have used 1.6 L turbocharged V6 engines, limited to 15,000 rpm. These engines allow Formula One cars to reach speeds of 372 km/h (231 mph),[290] as recorded by Valtteri Bottas at the 2016 Mexican Grand Prix.
Taxis
In 2000, North America's first hybrid electric taxi was put into service in Vancouver, British Columbia, operating a 2001 Toyota Prius which traveled over 332,000 km (206,000 mi) before being retired.[291][292] In 2015, a taxi driver in Austria claimed to have covered 1,000,000 km (620,000 mi) in his Toyota Prius with the original battery pack.[293]
Many of the major cities in the world are adding hybrid taxis to their taxicab fleets, led by San Francisco and New York City.[294] By 2009 15% of New York's 13,237 taxis in service are hybrids, the most in any city in North America, and also began retiring its original hybrid fleet after 300,000 and 350,000 miles (480,000 and 560,000 km) per vehicle.[294][295] Other cities where taxi service is available with hybrid vehicles include Tokyo, London, Sydney, Melbourne, and Rome.[296]
Buses
Hybrid technology for buses has seen increased attention since recent battery developments decreased battery weight significantly. Drivetrains consist of conventional diesel engines and gas turbines. Some designs concentrate on using car engines, recent designs have focused on using conventional diesel engines already used in bus designs, to save on engineering and training costs. As of 2007[update], several manufacturers were working on new hybrid designs, or hybrid drivetrains that fit into existing chassis offerings without major re-design. A challenge to hybrid buses may still come from cheaper lightweight imports from the former Eastern bloc countries or China, where national operators are looking at fuel consumption issues surrounding the weight of the bus, which has increased with recent bus technology innovations such as glazing, air conditioning and electrical systems. A hybrid bus can also deliver fuel economy though through the hybrid drivetrain. Hybrid technology is also being promoted by environmentally concerned transit authorities.
Trucks
In 2003,
Other vehicles are:
- Big mining machines like the
- Crawler-Transportersare diesel-electric.
- Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Eco Hybrid is a diesel-electric commercial truck.
- Azure Dynamics Balance Hybrid Electric is a gasoline-hybrid electric medium dutry truck based on the Ford E-450 chassis.
- Hino Motors (a Toyota subsidiary) has the world's first production hybrid electric truck in Australia (110 kW or 150 hp diesel engine plus a 23 kW or 31 hp electric motor).[300]
Other hybrid petroleum-electric truck makers are
Hybrid electric truck technology and powertrain maker: ZF Friedrichshafen, EPower Engine Systems.
By a
Military vehicles
Some 70 years after Porsche's pioneering efforts in hybrid-drivetrain armored fighting vehicles in World War II, the
Locomotives
In May 2003,
Railpower offers hybrid electric road
Marine and other aquatic
For large boats that are already diesel-electric, the upgrade to hybrid can be as straightforward as adding a large battery bank and control equipment; this configuration can provide fuel saving for the operators as well as being more environmentally sensitive.[306][307]
Producers of marine hybrid propulsion include:
- eCycle Inc.[308]
- Solar Sailor Holdings
Aircraft
A
Vehicle type | Fuel used |
---|---|
All-petroleum vehicle (aka all-combustion vehicle) |
Most use of petroleum or other fuel. |
Regular hybrid electric vehicle |
Less use of petroleum or other fuel, but unable to be plugged in. |
Plug-in hybrid vehicle | Less use of petroleum or other fuel, residual use of electricity. |
All-electric vehicle (BEV, AEV) |
Exclusively uses electricity. |
HEVs can be initially more expensive (the so-called "hybrid premium") than pure fossil-fuel-based ICE vehicles, due to extra batteries, more electronics and in some cases other design considerations (although battery renting can be used to reach the cost parity). The trade-off between higher initial cost (also called showroom costs) and lower fuel costs (difference often referred to as the payback period) is dependent on usage – miles traveled, or hours of operation, fuel costs, and in some cases, government subsidies. Traditional economy vehicles may result in a lower direct cost for many users (before consideration of any externality).
A January 2007 analysis by Intellichoice.com shows that all 22 available HEVs will save their owners money over a five-year period. The most savings is for the Toyota Prius, which has a five-year cost of ownership 40.3% lower than the cost of comparable non-hybrid vehicles.[311]
A report in the
In countries with incentives to fight against
period can be immediate, and all-combustion-engine vehicles can cost more than hybrids because they generate more pollution.Toyota and Honda have already said they've halved the incremental cost of electric hybrids and see cost parity in the future (even without incentives).[313]
Raw materials shortage
This section needs to be updated.(August 2013) |
The
However, nearly all the
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada and Mt Weld in Australia were under development,[317] however it is not known if these sources will be developed before a shortage hits.
Legislation and incentives
In order to encourage the purchase of HEVs, several countries have introduced legislation for
Canada
Residents of Ontario and Quebec in Canada can claim a rebate on the Provincial Retail Sales Tax of up to Can$2,000 on the purchase or lease of a hybrid electric vehicle.[318] Ontario has a green license plate for hybrid car users and was to announce a slew of benefits to go along with it in 2008.[319] Residents in British Columbia are eligible for a 100% reduction of sales tax up to a maximum of $2,000 if the hybrid electric vehicle is purchased or leased before April 1, 2011 (extended in 2007/2008 budget from March 31, 2008, and expanded from a maximum of only $1,000 from April 1, 2008, to March 31, 2009, at which point the concession was scheduled to expire).[320] Prince Edward Island residents can claim rebates on the Provincial Sales Tax of up to Can$3,000 on the purchase or lease of any hybrid vehicles since March 30, 2004.[321]
Israel
In
Japan
In 2009 the Japanese government implemented a set of policies and incentives that included a scrappage program, tax breaks on hybrid vehicles and other low emission cars and trucks, and a higher levy on gasoline that raised prices in the order of US$4.50 per gallon. New hybrid car sales for 2009 were almost triple those for 2008.[59][200]
Jordan
In Jordan, customs and sales tax reduced for all hybrid vehicles from 55% to 25% of the vehicle list price, 12.5% customs fees and sales tax, if the new hybrid is a replacement for an old car (more than 10 years age). However, in March 2018, the government resorted to imposing the 55% customs and sales tax back again in its efforts to increase revenue.
Malaysia
In
Netherlands
In the
New Zealand
In Christchurch, hybrid vehicles are entitled to an hour free parking in city council parking buildings. Where those buildings already provide an hour free, hybrid vehicles are entitled to an extra hour free.
Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, a discount of up to €1500 on VRT for hybrids, and up to €2500 for plugin hybrids was available until 31 December 2012.[322] Previously there was a potential reduction of 50% of VRT applicable before July 2008, when VRT rates were based on engine size, rather than the CO2 emissions system.[323] Some concerns were raised regarding the loss of VRT revenue due to the high number of expensive, luxury SUV hybrids imported, and also noting their large engine size, that in highway/extra-urban, and combined driving conditions may have negated much of the Hybrid engine arrangement emissions benefits (The Irish Times 11/11/2006).
Sweden
In Sweden there is an "Eco car" subsidy of SEK 10,000 (~ US$1,600) cash payout to private car owners. For fringe benefit cars there is a reduction of the benefit tax of 40% for EVs and HEVs and 20% for other "Eco cars".[324]
United Kingdom
Drivers of HEVs in the United Kingdom benefit from the lowest band of vehicle excise duty (car tax), which is based on carbon dioxide emissions. In central London, these vehicles are also exempt from the £11.5 daily London congestion charge.[325] Due to their low levels of regulated emissions, the greenest cars are eligible for 100% discount under the incentive system. To be eligible the car had to be on the Power Shift Register.[326] As of 2007[update], these included the cleanest LPG and natural gas cars and most hybrid-, battery- and fuel cell-electric vehicles.
United States
Federal
Through to December 31, 2010, the IRS permitted the purchaser of a hybrid electric car a federal income tax credit up to $3,400.[327] The tax credit was to be phased out two calendar quarters after the manufacturer reached 60,000 new cars sold in the following manner: it was reduced to 50% if delivered in either the third or fourth quarter after the threshold was reached, to 25% in the fifth and sixth quarters, and 0% thereafter.[328]
As of April 2010, three auto manufactures reached the 60,000 cap;
States and local
- Certain states (e.g., California, Florida, New York, and Virginia) allowed singly occupied HEVs to enter the HOV lanes on the highway. Initially, the Federal Highway Administration ruled that this was a violation of federal statute[330] until August 10, 2005, when George W. Bush signed the Transportation Equity Act of 2005 into law. In California, a total of 85,250 owners of the three eligible hybrid models benefited from free access to HOV lanes from 2004 to mid-2011.[331] This incentive expired on July 1, 2011, and now hybrids are required to comply the minimum passenger requirements to use the HOV lanes.[332]
- Some states, e.g., California, exempted hybrid electric cars from the biennial smog inspection, which costs over $50 (as of 2004[update]).
- Until 2007, the city of San Jose, California, issued a free parking tag for hybrid electric cars purchased at San Jose dealerships, after which the tag began being issued for a fee annually. The qualified owners did not have to pay for parking in any city garage or at roadside parking meters.[citation needed]
- Beginning October 1, 2004, the city of Los Angeles, California, offers free parking to all HEVs. The experiment is an extension to an existing offer of free parking for all pure electrical vehicles.
- In October 2005, the city of Baltimore, Maryland, started to offer discount on monthly parking in the city parking lots, and is considering free meter parking for HEVs.
- On 3 November 2005, Boston's city council was considering the same treatment for hybrid electric cars.
- Annual vehicle registration fees in Washington, D.C., are $36, half those paid for conventional vehicles ($72).[citation needed]
-
Prius(left) and a conventional Toyota Prius (right).
-
Some shopping malls in Northern Virginia have designated reserved parking spaces for electric hybrid cars.
See also
Notes
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- U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2021-05-16. See Table 6.2: Hybrid and Plug-In Vehicle Sales, 1999-2020
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- ^ Ward's AutoWorld. Archived from the originalon 2014-05-02. Retrieved 2014-04-30. Honda sold 187,851 hybrids in 2013.
- ^ Ward's AutoWorld. Archived from the originalon 2014-10-09. Retrieved 2014-10-04. Honda sold 158,696 hybrids during the first six months of 2014.
- ^ Toyota City, Japan: Toyota. 2017-01-14. Retrieved 2017-01-15.
This latest milestone of 10 million units was achieved just nine months after total sales reached 9 million units at the end of April 2016.
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- ^ a b c d e Comité des Constructeurs Français d’Automobiles (CCFA) (2012-01-16). "Les ventes de véhicules électriques ont été quintuplées en 2011" [Sales of electric vehicles multiplied by five in 2011] (in French). CCFA. Retrieved 2012-02-07.
- ^ a b Association AVEM (2011-02-08). "Les ventes de voitures hybrides en France sous la barre des 10.000 exemplaires en 2010" [Sales of hybrid cars in France just below the 10,000 units barrier in 2010] (in French). AVEM. Retrieved 2012-02-07.
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- ^ a b Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-01-07). "December 2013 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2014-05-26.. A total of 23,616 petrol/electric and 1,284 diesel/electrics in 2012.
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- ^ Moroni, Luca (2013-01-03). "I dati di vendita di auto elettriche e ibride a dicembre 2012 in Italia" [Sales figures of electric and hybrid cars in Italy through December 2012] (in Italian). Green Start. Retrieved 2016-06-13.
- ^ a b BestSellingCars.com (2012-10-16). "2011 Full Year Car Sales by Fuel Type in European Countries". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2016-06-14.
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- ^ a b Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (KBA) (January 2014). "Neuzulassungen – Jahresbilanz der Neuzulassungen 2013" [New registrations – Balance Sheet of new registrations in 2013] (in German). KBA. Archived from the original on 2014-05-05. Retrieved 2016-06-13. A total of 26,348 hybrids were registered in Germany during 2013, including 1,385 plug-in hybrids.
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External links
- Ford Transit Eléctrica
- Fleet Test and Evaluation Project – Hybrid Electric Fleet Vehicle Testing (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
- Electric and Gas Hybrids at Curlie
- Hybrid and Electric Vehicles – The Electric Drive Gains Traction Archived 2021-02-26 at the Wayback Machine, IA-HEV, International Energy Agency, May 2013
- Report on how HEVs work.