Fracking
Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation ) | |
Year of invention | 1947 |
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Fracking |
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Environmental impact |
Regulation |
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Fracking (also known as hydraulic fracturing, fracing, hydrofracturing, or hydrofracking) is a
Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1947,
Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial.
The scale of
Increases in
Geology
Mechanics
Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently become suppressed by
Veins
Most mineral
Dikes
Minor intrusions in the upper part of the crust, such as dikes, propagate in the form of fluid-filled cracks. In such cases, the fluid is magma. In sedimentary rocks with a significant water content, fluid at fracture tip will be steam.[39]
History
Precursors
20th century applications
Harold Hamm, Aubrey McClendon, Tom Ward and George P. Mitchell are each considered to have pioneered hydraulic fracturing innovations toward practical applications.[42][43]
Oil and gas wells
The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of
In contrast with large-scale hydraulic fracturing used in low-permeability formations, small hydraulic fracturing treatments are commonly used in high-permeability formations to remedy "skin damage", a low-permeability zone that sometimes forms at the rock-borehole interface. In such cases the fracturing may extend only a few feet from the borehole.[46]
In the
Massive fracturing
Massive hydraulic fracturing (also known as high-volume hydraulic fracturing) is a technique first applied by
American geologists gradually became aware that there were huge volumes of gas-saturated sandstones with permeability too low (generally less than 0.1
Massive hydraulic fracturing quickly spread in the late 1970s to western Canada, Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands (onshore and offshore gas fields), and the United Kingdom in the North Sea.[47]
Hydraulic fracturing operations have grown exponentially since the mid-1990s, when technologic advances and increases in the price of natural gas made this technique economically viable.[53]
Shales
Hydraulic fracturing of shales goes back at least to 1965, when some operators in the Big Sandy gas field of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia started hydraulically fracturing the Ohio Shale and Cleveland Shale, using relatively small fracs. The frac jobs generally increased production, especially from lower-yielding wells.[54]
In 1976, the United States government started the
In 1997, Nick Steinsberger, an engineer of Mitchell Energy (now part of
As of 2013, massive hydraulic fracturing is being applied on a commercial scale to shales in the United States, Canada, and China.
Process
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hydraulic fracturing is a process to stimulate a natural gas, oil, or geothermal well to maximize extraction. The EPA defines the broader process to include acquisition of source water, well construction, well stimulation, and waste disposal.[66]
Method
A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping
During the process, fracturing fluid leakoff (loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock) occurs. If not controlled, it can exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interaction, and altered fracture geometry, thereby decreasing efficiency.[68]
The location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal holes in the side of the wellbore. Hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores, and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations.[69]
Hydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps) and a monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron[clarification needed], a chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), fracking hose (low-pressure flexible hoses), and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure.[70] Chemical additives are typically 0.5% of the total fluid volume. Fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 megapascals (15,000 psi) and 265 litres per second (9.4 cu ft/s; 133 US bbl/min).[71]
Well types
A distinction can be made between conventional, low-volume hydraulic fracturing, used to stimulate high-permeability reservoirs for a single well, and unconventional, high-volume hydraulic fracturing, used in the completion of tight gas and shale gas wells. High-volume hydraulic fracturing usually requires higher pressures than low-volume fracturing; the higher pressures are needed to push out larger volumes of fluid and proppant that extend farther from the borehole.[72]
Drilling often plugs up the pore spaces at the wellbore wall, reducing permeability at and near the wellbore. This reduces flow into the borehole from the surrounding rock formation, and partially seals off the borehole from the surrounding rock. Low-volume hydraulic fracturing can be used to restore permeability.[73]
Fracturing fluids
The main purposes of fracturing fluid are to extend fractures, add lubrication, change gel strength, and to carry proppant into the formation. There are two methods of transporting proppant in the fluid – high-rate and high-viscosity. High-viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high-rate (slickwater) fracturing causes small spread-out micro-fractures.[74]
Water-soluble gelling agents (such as guar gum) increase viscosity and efficiently deliver proppant into the formation.[75]
Fluid is typically a
When propane is used it is turned into vapor by the high pressure and high temperature. The propane vapor and natural gas both return to the surface and can be collected, making it[clarification needed] easier to reuse and/or resale. None of the chemicals used will return to the surface. Only the propane used will return from what was used in the process.[80]
The proppant is a granular material that prevents the created fractures from closing after the fracturing treatment. Types of proppant include
The fracturing fluid varies depending on fracturing type desired, and the conditions of specific wells being fractured, and water characteristics. The fluid can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Fluid choices are tradeoffs: more viscous fluids, such as gels, are better at keeping proppant in suspension; while less-viscous and lower-friction fluids, such as slickwater, allow fluid to be pumped at higher rates, to create fractures farther out from the wellbore. Important material properties of the fluid include viscosity, pH, various rheological factors, and others.
Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to create hydraulic fracturing fluid. Approximately 40,000 gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing.[84] A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals.[67] Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, typical chemical additives can include one or more of the following:
- Acids—hydrochloric acid or acetic acid is used in the pre-fracturing stage for cleaning the perforations and initiating fissure in the near-wellbore rock.[78]
- polymer chains.[78]
- Polyacrylamide and other friction reducers decrease turbulence in fluid flow and pipe friction, thus allowing the pumps to pump at a higher rate without having greater pressure on the surface.[78]
- Ethylene glycol—prevents formation of scale deposits in the pipe.[78]
- Borate salts—used for maintaining fluid viscosity during the temperature increase.[78]
- Sodium and potassium carbonates—used for maintaining effectiveness of crosslinkers.[78]
- Glutaraldehyde- a biocide that prevents pipe corrosion from microbial activity.[85]
- Guar gum and other water-soluble gelling agents—increases viscosity of the fracturing fluid to deliver proppant into the formation more efficiently.[75][78]
- Citric acid—used for corrosion prevention.
- Isopropanol—used to winterize the chemicals to ensure it doesn't freeze.[78]
The most common chemical used for
Typical fluid types are:
- Conventional linear gels. These gels are cellulose derivative (carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose), guar or its derivatives (hydroxypropyl guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar), mixed with other chemicals.[clarification needed]
- Borate-crosslinked fluids. These are guar-based fluids cross-linked with boron ions (from aqueous borax/boric acid solution). These gels have higher viscosity at pH 9 onwards and are used to carry proppant. After the fracturing job, the pH is reduced to 3–4 so that the cross-links are broken, and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out.
- Organometallic-crosslinked fluids – zirconium, chromium, antimony, titanium salts – are known to crosslink guar-based gels. The crosslinking mechanism is not reversible, so once the proppant is pumped down along with cross-linked gel, the fracturing part is done. The gels are broken down with appropriate breakers.[clarification needed][75]
- Aluminium phosphate-ester oil gels. Aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross-linked gel. These are one of the first known gelling systems.
For slickwater fluids the use of sweeps is common. Sweeps are temporary reductions in the proppant concentration, which help ensure that the well is not overwhelmed with proppant.
Fracture monitoring
Measurements of the pressure and rate during the growth of a hydraulic fracture, with knowledge of fluid properties and proppant being injected into the well, provides the most common and simplest method of monitoring a hydraulic fracture treatment. This data along with knowledge of the underground geology can be used to model information such as length, width and conductivity of a propped fracture.[67]
Radionuclide monitoring
Injection of radioactive tracers along with the fracturing fluid is sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures.[88] Radiotracers are selected to have the readily detectable radiation, appropriate chemical properties, and a half life and toxicity level that will minimize initial and residual contamination.[89] Radioactive isotopes chemically bonded to glass (sand) and/or resin beads may also be injected to track fractures.[90] For example, plastic pellets coated with 10 GBq of Ag-110mm may be added to the proppant, or sand may be labelled with Ir-192, so that the proppant's progress can be monitored.[89] Radiotracers such as Tc-99m and I-131 are also used to measure flow rates.[89] The Nuclear Regulatory Commission publishes guidelines which list a wide range of radioactive materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms that may be used as tracers and limit the amount that may be used per injection and per well of each radionuclide.[90]
A new technique in well-monitoring involves fiber-optic cables outside the casing. Using the fiber optics, temperatures can be measured every foot along the well – even while the wells are being fracked and pumped. By monitoring the temperature of the well, engineers can determine how much hydraulic fracturing fluid different parts of the well use as well as how much natural gas or oil they collect, during hydraulic fracturing operation and when the well is producing.[citation needed]
Microseismic monitoring
For more advanced applications,
Microseismic mapping is very similar geophysically to
Different methods have different location errors[clarification needed] and advantages. Accuracy of microseismic event mapping is dependent on the signal-to-noise ratio and the distribution of sensors. Accuracy of events located by seismic inversion is improved by sensors placed in multiple azimuths from the monitored borehole. In a downhole array location, accuracy of events is improved by being close to the monitored borehole (high signal-to-noise ratio).
Monitoring of microseismic events induced by reservoir[clarification needed] stimulation has become a key aspect in evaluation of hydraulic fractures, and their optimization. The main goal of hydraulic fracture monitoring is to completely characterize the induced fracture structure, and distribution of conductivity within a formation. Geomechanical analysis, such as understanding a formations material properties, in-situ conditions, and geometries, helps monitoring by providing a better definition of the environment in which the fracture network propagates.[94] The next task is to know the location of proppant within the fracture and the distribution of fracture conductivity. This can be monitored using multiple types of techniques to finally develop a reservoir model than accurately predicts well performance.
Horizontal completions
Since the early 2000s, advances in drilling and completion technology have made horizontal wellbores much[clarification needed] more economical. Horizontal wellbores allow far greater exposure to a formation than conventional vertical wellbores. This is particularly useful in shale formations which do not have sufficient permeability to produce economically with a vertical well. Such wells, when drilled onshore, are now usually hydraulically fractured in a number of stages, especially in North America. The type of wellbore completion is used to determine how many times a formation is fractured, and at what locations along the horizontal section.[95]
In North America, shale reservoirs such as the
The wellbore for a plug-and-perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing, cemented or uncemented, set in the drilled hole. Once the drilling rig has been removed, a wireline truck is used to perforate near the bottom of the well, and then fracturing fluid is pumped. Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated. Another stage is pumped, and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore.[97]
The wellbore for the sliding sleeve[clarification needed] technique is different in that the sliding sleeves are included at set spacings in the steel casing at the time it is set in place. The sliding sleeves are usually all closed at this time. When the well is due to be fractured, the bottom sliding sleeve is opened using one of several activation techniques[citation needed] and the first stage gets pumped. Once finished, the next sleeve is opened, concurrently isolating the previous stage, and the process repeats. For the sliding sleeve method, wireline is usually not required.[citation needed]
These completion techniques may allow for more than 30 stages to be pumped into the horizontal section of a single well if required, which is far more than would typically be pumped into a vertical well that had far fewer feet of producing zone exposed.[98]
Uses
Hydraulic fracturing is used to increase the rate at which substances such as petroleum or natural gas can be recovered from subterranean natural reservoirs. Reservoirs are typically porous
Non-oil/gas uses
While the main industrial use of hydraulic fracturing is in stimulating production from oil and gas wells,[102][103][104] hydraulic fracturing is also applied:
- To stimulate groundwater wells[105]
- To precondition or induce rock cave-ins mining[106]
- As a means of enhancing waste remediation, usually hydrocarbon waste or spills[107]
- To dispose waste by injection deep into rock[108]
- To measure stress in the Earth[109]
- For electricity generation in enhanced geothermal systems[110]
- To increase injection rates for geologic sequestration of CO2[111]
- To store electrical energy, pumped storage hydroelectricity[112]
Since the late 1970s, hydraulic fracturing has been used, in some cases, to increase the yield of drinking water from wells in a number of countries, including the United States, Australia, and South Africa.[113][114][115]
Economic effects
Hydraulic fracturing has been seen as one of the key methods of extracting
A large majority of studies indicate that hydraulic fracturing in the United States has had a strong positive economic benefit so far.[citation needed] The Brookings Institution estimates that the benefits of Shale Gas alone has led to a net economic benefit of $48 billion per year. Most of this benefit is within the consumer and industrial sectors due to the significantly reduced prices for natural gas.[116] Other studies have suggested that the economic benefits are outweighed by the externalities and that the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from less carbon and water intensive sources is lower.[117]
The primary benefit of hydraulic fracturing is to offset imports of natural gas and oil, where the cost paid to producers otherwise exits the domestic economy.[118] However, shale oil and gas is highly subsidised in the US, and has not yet covered production costs[119] – meaning that the cost of hydraulic fracturing is paid for in income taxes, and in many cases is up to double the cost paid at the pump.[120]
Research suggests that hydraulic fracturing wells have an adverse effect on agricultural productivity in the vicinity of the wells.[121] One paper found "that productivity of an irrigated crop decreases by 5.7% when a well is drilled during the agriculturally active months within 11–20 km radius of a producing township. This effect becomes smaller and weaker as the distance between township and wells increases."[121] The findings imply that the introduction of hydraulic fracturing wells to Alberta cost the province $14.8 million in 2014 due to the decline in the crop productivity,[121]
The Energy Information Administration of the US Department of Energy estimates that 45% of US gas supply will come from shale gas by 2035 (with the vast majority of this replacing conventional gas, which has a lower greenhouse-gas footprint).[122]
Public debate
Politics and public policy
Popular movement and civil society organizations
An
There have been many protests directed at hydraulic fracturing. For example, ten people were arrested in 2013 during an anti-fracking protest near New Matamoras, Ohio, after they illegally entered a development zone and latched themselves to drilling equipment.[126] In northwest Pennsylvania, there was a drive-by shooting at a well site, in which someone shot two rounds of a small-caliber rifle in the direction of a drilling rig.[127] In Washington County, Pennsylvania, a contractor working on a gas pipeline found a pipe bomb that had been placed where a pipeline was to be constructed, which local authorities said would have caused a "catastrophe" had they not discovered and detonated it.[128]
U.S. government and Corporate lobbying
The
Alleged Russian state advocacy
In 2014 a number of European officials suggested that several major European protests against hydraulic fracturing (with mixed success in Lithuania and Ukraine) may be partially sponsored by Gazprom, Russia's state-controlled gas company. The New York Times suggested that Russia saw its natural gas exports to Europe as a key element of its geopolitical influence, and that this market would diminish if hydraulic fracturing is adopted in Eastern Europe, as it opens up significant shale gas reserves in the region. Russian officials have on numerous occasions made public statements to the effect that hydraulic fracturing "poses a huge environmental problem".[131]
Current fracking operations
Hydraulic fracturing is currently taking place in the United States in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Louisiana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia,[132] and Wyoming. Other states, such as Alabama, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio, are either considering or preparing for drilling using this method. Maryland[133] and Vermont have permanently banned hydraulic fracturing, and New York and North Carolina have instituted temporary bans. New Jersey currently has a bill before its legislature to extend a 2012 moratorium on hydraulic fracturing that recently expired. Although a hydraulic fracturing moratorium was recently lifted in the United Kingdom, the government is proceeding cautiously because of concerns about earthquakes and the environmental effect of drilling. Hydraulic fracturing is currently banned in France and Bulgaria.[53]
Documentary films
Josh Fox's 2010 Academy Award nominated film Gasland[134] became a center of opposition to hydraulic fracturing of shale. The movie presented problems with groundwater contamination near well sites in Pennsylvania, Wyoming and Colorado.[135] Energy in Depth, an oil and gas industry lobbying group, called the film's facts into question.[136] In response, a rebuttal of Energy in Depth's claims of inaccuracy was posted on Gasland's website.[137] The Director of the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission (COGCC) offered to be interviewed as part of the film if he could review what was included from the interview in the final film but Fox declined the offer.[138] ExxonMobil, Chevron Corporation and ConocoPhillips aired advertisements during 2011 and 2012 that claimed to describe the economic and environmental benefits of natural gas and argue that hydraulic fracturing was safe.[139]
The 2012 film Promised Land, starring Matt Damon, takes on hydraulic fracturing.[140] The gas industry countered the film's criticisms of hydraulic fracturing with flyers, and Twitter and Facebook posts.[139]
In January 2013,
In April 2013, Josh Fox released Gasland 2, his "international odyssey uncovering a trail of secrets, lies and contamination related to hydraulic fracking". It challenges the gas industry's portrayal of natural gas as a clean and safe alternative to oil as a myth, and that hydraulically fractured wells inevitably leak over time, contaminating water and air, hurting families, and endangering the Earth's climate with the potent greenhouse gas methane.
In 2014, Scott Cannon of Video Innovations released the documentary The Ethics of Fracking. The film covers the politics, spiritual, scientific, medical and professional points of view on hydraulic fracturing. It also digs into the way the gas industry portrays hydraulic fracturing in their advertising.[143]
In 2015, the Canadian documentary film Fractured Land had its world premiere at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival.[144]
Research issues
Typically the funding source of the research studies is a focal point of controversy. Concerns have been raised about research funded by foundations and corporations, or by environmental groups, which can at times lead to at least the appearance of unreliable studies.[145][146] Several organizations, researchers, and media outlets have reported difficulty in conducting and reporting the results of studies on hydraulic fracturing due to industry[147] and governmental pressure,[29] and expressed concern over possible censoring of environmental reports.[147][148][149] Some have argued there is a need for more research into the environmental and health effects of the technique.[150][151][152][153]
Health risks
There is concern over the possible adverse public health implications of hydraulic fracturing activity.[150] A 2013 review on shale gas production in the United States stated, "with increasing numbers of drilling sites, more people are at risk from accidents and exposure to harmful substances used at fractured wells."[154] A 2011 hazard assessment recommended full disclosure of chemicals used for hydraulic fracturing and drilling as many have immediate health effects, and many may have long-term health effects.[155]
In June 2014 Public Health England published a review of the potential public health impacts of exposures to chemical and radioactive pollutants as a result of shale gas extraction in the UK, based on the examination of literature and data from countries where hydraulic fracturing already occurs.[151] The executive summary of the report stated: "An assessment of the currently available evidence indicates that the potential risks to public health from exposure to the emissions associated with shale gas extraction will be low if the operations are properly run and regulated. Most evidence suggests that contamination of groundwater, if it occurs, is most likely to be caused by leakage through the vertical borehole. Contamination of groundwater from the underground hydraulic fracturing process itself (i.e. the fracturing of the shale) is unlikely. However, surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or wastewater may affect groundwater, and emissions to air also have the potential to impact on health. Where potential risks have been identified in the literature, the reported problems are typically a result of operational failure and a poor regulatory environment."[151]: iii
A 2012 report prepared for the European Union Directorate-General for the Environment identified potential risks to humans from air pollution and ground water contamination posed by hydraulic fracturing.[156] This led to a series of recommendations in 2014 to mitigate these concerns.[157][158] A 2012 guidance for pediatric nurses in the US said that hydraulic fracturing had a potential negative impact on public health and that pediatric nurses should be prepared to gather information on such topics so as to advocate for improved community health.[159]
A 2017 study in
A 2022 study conduced by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and published in Nature Energy found that elderly people living near or downwind of unconventional oil and gas development (UOGD) -- which involves extraction methods including fracking—are at greater risk of experiencing early death compared with elderly persons who don't live near such operations.[161]
Statistics collected by the U.S. Department of Labor and analyzed by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show a correlation between drilling activity and the number of occupational injuries related to drilling and motor vehicle accidents, explosions, falls, and fires.[162] Extraction workers are also at risk for developing pulmonary diseases, including lung cancer and silicosis (the latter because of exposure to silica dust generated from rock drilling and the handling of sand).[163] The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified exposure to airborne silica as a health hazard to workers conducting some hydraulic fracturing operations.[164] NIOSH and OSHA issued a joint hazard alert on this topic in June 2012.[164]
Additionally, the extraction workforce is at increased risk for radiation exposure. Fracking activities often require drilling into rock that contains naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), such as radon, thorium, and uranium.[165]
Another report done by the Canadian Medical Journal reported that after researching they identified 55 factors that may cause cancer, including 20 that have been shown to increase the risk of leukemia and lymphoma. The Yale Public Health analysis warns that millions of people living within a mile of fracking wells may have been exposed to these chemicals.[166]
Environmental effects
Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation ) | |
Year of invention | 1947 |
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The potential environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing include air emissions and climate change, high water consumption, groundwater contamination, land use,[167] risk of earthquakes, noise pollution, and various health effects on humans.[168] Air emissions are primarily methane that escapes from wells, along with industrial emissions from equipment used in the extraction process.[156] Modern UK and EU regulation requires zero emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.[citation needed] Escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in ones built under more recent EU legislation.[156]
In December 2016 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the "Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)." The EPA found scientific evidence that hydraulic fracturing activities can impact drinking water resources.[169] A few of the main reasons why drinking water can be contaminated according to the EPA are:
- Water removal to be used for fracking in times or areas of low water availability[169]
- Spills while handling fracking fluids and chemicals that result in large volumes or high concentrations of chemicals reaching groundwater resources[169]
- Injection of fracking fluids into wells when mishandling machinery, allowing gases or liquids to move to groundwater resources[169]
- Injection of fracking fluids directly into groundwater resources[169]
- Leak of defective hydraulic fracturing wastewater to surface water[169]
- Disposal or storage of fracking wastewater in unlined pits resulting in contamination of groundwater resources.[169]
The lifecycle
Hydraulic fracturing uses between 1.2 and 3.5 million US gallons (4,500 and 13,200 m3) of water per well, with large projects using up to 5 million US gallons (19,000 m3).
In the United States there is over 12 million acres that are being used for fossil fuels. About 3.6 hectares (8.9 acres) of land is needed per each
In July 2013, the US Federal Railroad Administration listed oil contamination by hydraulic fracturing chemicals as "a possible cause" of corrosion in oil tank cars.[182]
Hydraulic fracturing has been sometimes linked to induced seismicity or earthquakes.[183] The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although tremors attributed to fluid injection into disposal wells have been large enough to have often been felt by people, and to have caused property damage and possibly injuries.[27][184][185][186][187][188] A U.S. Geological Survey reported that up to 7.9 million people in several states have a similar earthquake risk to that of California, with hydraulic fracturing and similar practices being a prime contributing factor.[189]
Microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing.[91] A better understanding of the geology of the area being fracked and used for injection wells can be helpful in mitigating the potential for significant seismic events.[190]
People obtain drinking water from either surface water, which includes rivers and reservoirs, or groundwater aquifers, accessed by public or private wells. There are already a host of documented instances in which nearby groundwater has been contaminated by fracking activities, requiring residents with private wells to obtain outside sources of water for drinking and everyday use.[191][192]
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances also known as "PFAS" or "forever chemicals" have been linked to cancer and birth defects. The chemicals used in fracking stay in the environment. Once there those chemicals will eventually break down into PFAS. These chemicals can escape from drilling sites and into the groundwater. PFAS are able to leak into underground wells that store million gallons of wastewater.[193]
Despite these health concerns and efforts to institute a moratorium on fracking until its environmental and health effects are better understood, the United States continues to rely heavily on fossil fuel energy. In 2017, 37% of annual U.S. energy consumption is derived from petroleum, 29% from natural gas, 14% from coal, and 9% from nuclear sources, with only 11% supplied by renewable energy, such as wind and solar power.[194]
In 2022 the USA experienced a fracking boom, when the war in Ukraine led to a massive increase in approval of new drillings. Planned drillings will release 140 billion tons of carbon, 4 times more that the annual global emissions.[195]
Regulations
Countries using or considering use of hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations, including developing federal and regional legislation, and local zoning limitations.
The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high-volume hydraulic fracturing.[32] Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives.[207] In the United States, the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus.org, an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U.S. Department of Energy.[208][209] Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act's underground injection control's regulation, except when diesel fuel is used. The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed.[210]
In 2012, Vermont became the first state in the United States to ban hydraulic fracturing. On 17 December 2014, New York became the second state to issue a complete ban on any hydraulic fracturing due to potential risks to human health and the environment.[211][212][213]
See also
- Directional drilling
- Environmental impact of electricity generation
- Environmental effects of petroleum
- Fracking by country
- Fracking in the United States
- Fracking in the United Kingdom
- In situ leach
- Nuclear power
- Peak oil
- Stranded asset
- Shale oil extraction
References
This article incorporates public domain material from Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
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{{cite book}}
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Further reading
- Gamper-Rabindran, Shanti, ed. The Shale Dilemma: A Global Perspective on Fracking and Shale Development (U of Pittsburgh Press, 2018) online review
- Kiparsky, Michael; Hein, Jayni Foley (April 2013). "Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing in California: A Wastewater and Water Quality Perspective" (PDF). University of California Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
- Ridlington, Elizabeth; John Rumpler (3 October 2013). "Fracking by the numbers". Environment America.
- "DISH, Texas Exposure Investigation" (PDF). Texas DSHS. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
- de Pater, C.J.; Baisch, S. (2 November 2011). Geomechanical Study of Bowland Shale Seismicity (PDF) (Report). Cuadrilla Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- McKenzie, Lisa; Witter, Roxana; Newman, Lee; Adgate, John (2012). "Human health risk assessment of air emissions from development of unconventional natural gas resources". Science of the Total Environment. 424: 79–87. S2CID 19248364.
- "The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle". EPA. 16 March 2014. Archived from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
- Fernandez, John Michael; Gunter, Matthew. "Hydraulic Fracturing: Environmentally Friendly Practices" (PDF). Environmentally Friendly Drilling Systems. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
- Colborn, Theo; Kwiatkowski, Carol; Schultz, Kim; Bachran, Mary (2011). "Natural gas operations from public health perspective". Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. 17 (5): 1039–56. S2CID 53996198.
- Abdalla, Charles W.; Drohan, Joy R.; Blunk, Kristen Saacke; Edson, Jessie (2014). Marcellus Shale Wastewater Issues in Pennsylvania – Current and Emerging Treatment and Disposal Technologies (Report). Penn State Extension. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
- Arthur, J. Daniel; Langhus, Bruce; Alleman, David (2008). An overview of modern shale gas development in the United States (PDF) (Report). ALL Consulting. p. 21. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- Howe, J. Cullen; Del Percio, Stephen. The Legal and Regulatory Landscape of Hydraulic Fracturing (Report). LexisNexis. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
- Molofsky, L. J.; Connor, J. A.; Shahla, K. F.; Wylie, A. S.; Wagner, T. (5 December 2011). "Methane in Pennsylvania Water Wells Unrelated to Marcellus Shale Fracturing". Oil and Gas Journal. 109 (49): 54–67.
- ISBN 978-92-64-12413-4.
- "How is hydraulic fracturing related to earthquakes and tremors?". USGS. Archived from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
- Moniz, Ernest J.; et al. (June 2011). The Future of Natural Gas: An Interdisciplinary MIT Study (PDF) (Report). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
- Biello, David (30 March 2010). "Natural gas cracked out of shale deposits may mean the U.S. has a stable supply for a century – but at what cost to the environment and human health?". Scientific American. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
- Schmidt, Charles (1 August 2011). "Blind Rush? Shale Gas Boom Proceeds Amid Human Health Questions". PMID 21807583.
- Allen, David T.; Torres, Vincent N.; Thomas, James; Sullivan, David W.; Harrison, Matthew; Hendler, Al; Herndon, Scott C.; Kolb, Charles E.; Fraser, Matthew P.; Hill, A. Daniel; Lamb, Brian K.; Miskimins, Jennifer; Sawyer, Robert F.; Seinfeld, John H. (16 September 2013). "Measurements of methane emissions at natural gas production sites in the United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (44): 17768–73. PMID 24043804.
- Kassotis, Christopher D.; Tillitt, Donald E.; Davis, J. Wade; Hormann, Annette M.; Nagel, Susan C. (March 2014). "Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Activities of Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Surface and Ground Water in a Drilling-Dense Region". PMID 24424034.
- Chalupka, S. (October 2012). "Occupational Silica Exposure in Hydraulic Fracturing". Workplace Health & Safety. 60 (10): 460. ProQuest 1095508837.
- Smith, S. (1 August 2014). "Respirators Are Not Enough: New Study Examines Worker Exposure to Silica in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations". EHS Today. ProQuest 1095508837.
- "Waste water (flowback)from hydraulic fracturing" (PDF). Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
- Spath, David P. (November 1997). "Policy Memo 97-005 Policy Guidance for Direct Domestic Use of Extremely Impaired Sources" (PDF). State of California Department of Public Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
- Weinhold, Bob (19 September 2012). "Unknown Quantity: Regulating Radionuclides in Tap Water". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (9): A350–56. PMID 23487846.
Examples of human activities that may lead to radionuclide exposure include mining, milling, and processing of radioactive substances; wastewater releases from the hydraulic fracturing of oil and natural gas wells... Mining and hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking", can concentrate levels of uranium (as well as radium, radon, and thorium) in wastewater...
- Rachel Maddow, Terrence Henry (7 August 2012). Rachel Maddow Show: Fracking waste messes with Texas (video). MSNBC. Event occurs at 9:24 – 10:35.
- Cothren, Jackson. Modeling the Effects of Non-Riparian Surface Water Diversions on Flow Conditions in the Little Red Watershed (PDF) (Report). U. S. Geological Survey, Arkansas Water Science Center Arkansas Water Resources Center, American Water Resources Association, Arkansas State Section Fayetteville Shale Symposium 2012. p. 12. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
...each well requires between 3 and 7 million gallons of water for hydraulic fracturing and the number of wells is expected to grow in the future
- Janco, David F. (1 February 2007). PADEP Determination Letter No. 970. Diminution of Snow Shoe Borough Authority Water Well No. 2; primary water source for about 1,000 homes and businesses in and around the borough; contested by Range Resources. Determination Letter acquired by the Scranton Times-Tribune via Right-To-Know Law request (PDF) (Report). Scranton Times-Tribune. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
- Janco, David F. (3 January 2008). PADEP Determination Letter No. 352 Determination Letter acquired by the Scranton Times-Tribune via Right-To-Know Law request. Order: Atlas Miller 42 and 43 gas wells; Aug 2007 investigation; supplied temporary buffalo for two springs, ordered to permanently replace supplies (PDF) (Report). Scranton Times-Tribune. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
- Lustgarten, Abrahm (21 June 2012). "Are Fracking Wastewater Wells Poisoning the Ground beneath Our Feet? Leaking injection wells may pose a risk – and the science has not kept pace with the growing glut of wastewater". Scientific American. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
- Rabinowitz, Peter M.; Rabinowitz, Ilya B.; Slizovskiy, Vanessa; Lamers, Sally J.; Trufan, Theodore R.; Holford, James D.; Dziura, Peter N.; Peduzzi, Michael J.; Kane, John S.; Reif, John; Weiss, Theresa R.; Stowe1, Meredith H. (2014). "Proximity to Natural Gas Wells and Reported Health Status: Results of a Household Survey in Washington County, Pennsylvania". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (1): 21–26. PMID 25204871.)
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: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - Arthur, J. Daniel; Uretsky, Mike; Wilson, Preston (5–6 May 2010). Water Resources and Use for Hydraulic Fracturing in the Marcellus Shale Region (PDF). Meeting of the American Institute of Professional Geologists. Pittsburgh: ALL Consulting. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
- Colborn, Theo; Kwiatkowski, Carol; Schultz, Kim; Bachran, Mary (2011). "Natural Gas Operations from a Public Health Perspective" (PDF). Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. 17 (5): 1039–56. S2CID 53996198. Archived from the original(PDF) on 26 April 2012.
- Osborn, Stephen G.; Vengosh, Avner; Warner, Nathaniel R.; Jackson, Robert B. (17 May 2011). "Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing". PMID 21555547.
- Nicholas St. Fleur (19 December 2014). "The Alarming Research Behind New York's Fracking Ban – an analysis of the findings in Governor Andrew Cuomo's 184-page review of hydraulic fracturing". The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
- Gallegos, T.J. and B.A. Varela (2015). Hydraulic Fracturing Distributions and Treatment Fluids, Additives, Proppants, and Water Volumes Applied to Wells Drilled in the United States from 1947 through 2010. U.S. Geological Survey.
External links
- Hydraulic Fracturing Litigation Summary (22 April 2021)