Hydroelectricity
This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: IEA 2021 report https://www.iea.org/reports/hydropower-special-market-report. (January 2022) |
Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is
Construction of a hydroelectric complex can have significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and population displacement.[4][5] They also disrupt the natural ecology of the river involved, affecting habitats and ecosystems, and siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the risks of flooding, dam failure can be catastrophic.
In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1,400 GW, the highest among all renewable energy technologies.[6] Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China.[7] but there are geographical limits and environmental issues.[8] Tidal power can be used in coastal regions.
History
Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial Revolution. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique, which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771 Richard Arkwright's combination of water power, the water frame, and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices.[10] In the 1840s the hydraulic power network was developed to generate and transmit hydro power to end users.
By the late 19th century, the
At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas.
Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as "white coal".[17] Hoover Dam's initial 1,345 MW power station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942.[18] The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as the largest, producing 14 GW, but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5 GW. Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Paraguay and Brazil, with over 85% of their electricity.
Future potential
In 2021 the International Energy Agency (IEA) said that more efforts are needed to help limit climate change.[19] Some countries have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth: Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%.[20] In 2022, the IEA released a main-case forecast of 141 GW generated by hydropower over 2022–2027, which is slightly lower than deployment achieved from 2017–2022. Because environmental permitting and construction times are long, they estimate hydropower potential will remain limited, with only an additional 40 GW deemed possible in the accelerated case.[6]
Modernization of existing infrastructure
In 2021 the IEA said that major modernisation refurbishments are required.[1]: 67
Generating methods
Conventional (dams)
Most hydroelectric power comes from the
Pumped-storage
This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, the excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir, thus providing demand side response.[1] When the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. In 2021 pumped-storage schemes provided almost 85% of the world's 190 GW of grid energy storage[1] and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage is not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings.[22]
Run-of-the-river
Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river.[23]
Tide
A tidal power station makes use of the daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels. Tidal power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around the world.[24]
Sizes, types and capacities of hydroelectric facilities
Large facilities
The largest power producers in the world are hydroelectric power stations, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations.
Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred
Currently, only seven facilities over 10
Rank | Station | Country | Location | Capacity ( MW )
|
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Three Gorges Dam | China | 30°49′15″N 111°00′08″E / 30.82083°N 111.00222°E | 22,500 |
2. | Baihetan Dam | China | 27°13′23″N 102°54′11″E / 27.22306°N 102.90306°E | 16,000 |
3. | Itaipu Dam | Brazil Paraguay |
25°24′31″S 54°35′21″W / 25.40861°S 54.58917°W | 14,000 |
4. | Xiluodu Dam | China | 28°15′35″N 103°38′58″E / 28.25972°N 103.64944°E | 13,860 |
5. | Belo Monte Dam | Brazil | 03°06′57″S 51°47′45″W / 3.11583°S 51.79583°W | 11,233 |
6. | Guri Dam | Venezuela | 07°45′59″N 62°59′57″W / 7.76639°N 62.99917°W | 10,235 |
7. | Wudongde Dam | China | 26°20′2″N 102°37′48″E / 26.33389°N 102.63000°E | 10,200 |
Small
Small hydro is
Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as a source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a grid, or in areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on the balance between stream flow and power production.[citation needed]
Micro
Micro hydro means
Pico
Pico hydro is
Underground
An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. A tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in a cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.
Calculating available power
A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric station is:
where
- is power (in watts)
- (eta) is the coefficient of efficiency (a unitless, scalar coefficient, ranging from 0 for completely inefficient to 1 for completely efficient).
- (m3)
- is the volumetric flow rate (in m3/s)
- is the mass flow rate (in kg/s)
- (meters)
- is acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
Efficiency is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations, the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year.[citation needed]
Properties
Advantages
Flexibility
Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands.[25] Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order of a few minutes.[31] Although battery power is quicker its capacity is tiny compared to hydro.[1] It takes less than 10 minutes to bring most hydro units from cold start-up to full load; this is quicker than nuclear and almost all fossil fuel power.[32] Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation.[33] Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs.[34] Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators.[33]
High value power
The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at low cost for
Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years.[35] Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.
Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation.[36] However, some data shows that in most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver a positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place.[37]
Suitability for industrial applications
While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for
Reduced CO2 emissions
Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce
Like other non-fossil fuel sources, hydropower also has no emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other particulates.
Other uses of the reservoir
Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project.[40] Managing dams which are also used for other purposes, such as irrigation, is complicated.[1]
Disadvantages
In 2021 the IEA called for "robust sustainability standards for all hydropower development with streamlined rules and regulations".[1]
Ecosystem damage and loss of land
Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of the dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.[25] The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir.[41]
Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks.[42] The turbines also will kill large portions of the fauna passing through, for instance 70% of the eel passing a turbine will perish immediately.[43][44][45] Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.[46]
Drought and water loss by evaporation
Drought and seasonal changes in rainfall can severely limit hydropower.[1] Water may also be lost by evaporation.[47]
Siltation and flow shortage
When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.[48][49]
Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as a result of climate change.[50] One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%.[50] Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in the rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century.[50]
Methane emissions (from reservoirs)
Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions. In lowland rainforest areas, where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary, it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants produce substantial amounts of methane.[51] This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane, a greenhouse gas. According to the World Commission on Dams report,[52] where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant.[53]
In
Relocation
Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40–80 million people worldwide.[55]
Failure risks
Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure.
During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam in Southern China failed when more than a year's worth of rain fell within 24 hours (see 1975 Banqiao Dam failure). The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless.
The creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2,000 people died.[56]
The Malpasset Dam failure in Fréjus on the French Riviera (Côte d'Azur), southern France, collapsed on December 2, 1959, killing 423 people in the resulting flood.[57]
Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned. For example, the small earthen embankment Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1977, twenty years after its power station was decommissioned, causing 39 deaths.[58]
Comparison and interactions with other methods of power generation
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: solar panels on reservoirs, also Tasmania link.(January 2022) |
Hydroelectricity eliminates the
Nuclear power
Wind power
An example of this is
Hydro power by country
In 2022 hydro generated 4,289 TWh, 15% of total electricity and half of renewables. Of the world total, China (30%) produced the most, followed by Brazil (10%), Canada (9.2%), the United States (5.8%) and Russia (4.6%).
Paraguay produces nearly all of its electricity from hydro and exports far more than it uses.[63] Large plants tend to be built by governments, so most capacity (70%) is publicly owned, even though most plants (nearly 70%) are owned and operated by the private sector, as of 2021.[1]
The following table lists these data for each country:
- total generation from hydro in terawatt-hours,
- percent of that country's generation that was hydro,
- total hydro capacity in gigawatts,
- percent growth in hydro capacity, and
- the hydro capacity factor for that year.
Data are sourced from Ember and refer to the year 2022 unless otherwise specified.[62] Only includes countries with more than 1 TWh of generation. Links for each location go to the relevant hydro power page, when available.
Country | Gen (TWh) |
% gen. |
Cap. (GW) |
% cap. growth |
Cap. fac. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
World | 4288.59 | 15.0 | 1255.45 | 1.7 | 39% |
China | 1303.13 | 14.7 | 367.71 | 3.7 | 40% |
Brazil |
428.06 | 62.9 | 109.81 | 0.4 | 44% |
Canada | 392.51 | 61.5 | 83.55 | 1.0 | 54% |
United States | 248.76 | 5.8 | 83.85 | 0.1 | 34% |
Russia | 197.41 | 17.6 | 51.40 | 0.0 | 44% |
India |
174.92 | 9.4 | 47.22 | 0.9 | 42% |
Norway |
134.86 | 88.3 | 34.12 | 0.2 | 45% |
Vietnam | 95.96 | 36.9 | 21.86 | 1.3 | 50% |
Japan | 74.88 | 7.2 | 28.20 | 0.3 | 30% |
Sweden | 69.38 | 40.3 | 16.41 | 0.0 | 48% |
Turkey | 67.09 | 20.6 | 31.57 | 0.3 | 24% |
Colombia |
62.01 | 73.4 | 12.56 | 5.0 | 56% |
Venezuela (2021) | 61.00 | 64.4 | 16.83 | 0.0 | 41% |
France |
46.29 | 9.8 | 24.56 | 0.0 | 22% |
Paraguay (2021) |
39.89 | 99.7 | 8.81 | 0.0 | 52% |
Pakistan | 36.41 | 23.9 | 10.83 | 7.9 | 38% |
Austria | 35.54 | 53.9 | 14.97 | 1.5 | 27% |
Mexico |
35.30 | 10.1 | 13.30 | 0.0 | 30% |
Italy | 30.77 | 10.8 | 18.84 | 0.2 | 19% |
Malaysia |
30.72 | 17.0 | 6.21 | 0.0 | 56% |
Switzerland | 30.48 | 49.0 | 15.07 | 0.1 | 23% |
Peru | 29.70 | 49.3 | 5.50 | 0.0 | 62% |
Laos (2021) |
28.51 | 71.3 | 8.79 | 9.5 | 37% |
Indonesia |
27.30 | 8.2 | 6.69 | 1.4 | 47% |
Argentina |
26.15 | 18.2 | 10.39 | 0.1 | 29% |
New Zealand | 25.92 | 58.8 | 5.44 | 0.0 | 54% |
Ecuador | 24.63 | 74.4 | 5.19 | 1.8 | 54% |
Chile |
20.27 | 24.4 | 7.29 | 7.1 | 32% |
Spain |
18.79 | 6.6 | 16.80 | 0.0 | 13% |
Tajikistan (2021) |
18.00 | 91.2 | 5.27 | 0.0 | 39% |
Australia |
17.12 | 6.3 | 7.71 | 0.0 | 25% |
Germany | 17.06 | 3.0 | 5.54 | 0.9 | 35% |
Zambia (2021) | 16.07 | 90.7 | 2.71 | 12.9 | 68% |
Mozambique (2021) | 16.00 | 80.4 | 2.19 | 0.0 | 83% |
Egypt |
14.07 | 6.8 | 2.83 | 0.0 | 57% |
Ethiopia (2021) |
14.00 | 95.3 | 4.07 | 0.0 | 39% |
Romania | 14.00 | 25.2 | 6.57 | 0.0 | 24% |
Finland | 13.74 | 18.9 | 3.17 | 0.0 | 49% |
Iceland (2021) |
13.57 | 70.5 | 2.11 | 0.0 | 73% |
Kyrgyzstan (2021) | 13.00 | 89.9 | 2.78 | -24.3 | 53% |
North Korea (2021) | 12.00 | 83.0 | 4.86 | 0.0 | 28% |
Angola (2021) |
11.50 | 70.0 | 3.73 | 0.0 | 35% |
DR Congo (2021) | 11.00 | 99.6 | 2.72 | 0.0 | 46% |
Georgia | 10.77 | 75.6 | 3.08 | 3.7 | 40% |
Ukraine | 10.53 | 9.2 | 4.82 | 0.0 | 25% |
Sudan (2021) | 10.00 | 60.3 | 1.48 | 0.0 | 77% |
Costa Rica |
9.30 | 73.6 | 2.33 | -2.1 | 46% |
Kazakhstan |
9.10 | 8.1 | 2.81 | 0.0 | 37% |
Bhutan (2021) |
9.00 | 100.0 | 2.33 | 0.0 | 44% |
Myanmar (2021) |
9.00 | 40.2 | 3.30 | 0.0 | 31% |
Albania (2021) | 8.89 | 99.2 | 2.51 | 5.0 | 40% |
Philippines | 8.80 | 7.8 | 3.04 | -0.3 | 33% |
Nigeria | 8.76 | 27.3 | 2.11 | 0.0 | 47% |
Serbia | 8.66 | 24.6 | 2.48 | 0.4 | 40% |
Portugal | 7.59 | 16.2 | 7.59 | 4.7 | 11% |
Iran | 7.45 | 2.1 | 11.50 | 3.1 | 7% |
Ghana (2021) | 7.21 | 34.5 | 1.58 | 0.0 | 52% |
Panama (2021) | 7.20 | 64.3 | 1.81 | 0.0 | 45% |
Thailand | 6.73 | 3.5 | 3.11 | 0.0 | 25% |
Nepal (2021) |
6.00 | 98.0 | 1.99 | 53.1 | 34% |
Guatemala (2021) | 5.92 | 41.0 | 1.57 | -0.6 | 43% |
Taiwan | 5.83 | 2.1 | 2.09 | 0.0 | 32% |
Uruguay | 5.61 | 35.7 | 1.54 | 0.0 | 42% |
Croatia | 5.35 | 37.9 | 2.20 | 0.0 | 28% |
United Kingdom | 5.32 | 1.6 | 2.19 | 0.0 | 28% |
Cameroon (2021) |
5.00 | 62.1 | 0.81 | 0.0 | 70% |
Sri Lanka (2021) |
5.00 | 30.6 | 1.80 | 0.0 | 32% |
Uzbekistan (2021) | 5.00 | 8.5 | 2.05 | 1.5 | 28% |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 4.97 | 30.0 | 1.84 | 0.0 | 31% |
Iraq (2021) | 4.90 | 5.0 | 1.56 | 0.0 | 36% |
Greece | 4.73 | 9.0 | 3.42 | 0.0 | 16% |
Uganda (2021) | 4.00 | 90.9 | 1.01 | 0.0 | 45% |
Zimbabwe (2021) | 4.00 | 49.8 | 1.08 | 0.0 | 42% |
Cambodia (2021) |
4.00 | 46.0 | 1.33 | 0.0 | 34% |
Bulgaria | 3.70 | 7.3 | 2.51 | 0.0 | 17% |
Slovakia | 3.70 | 13.8 | 1.62 | 0.0 | 26% |
South Korea | 3.55 | 0.6 | 1.81 | -1.6 | 22% |
Kenya | 3.34 | 27.0 | 0.86 | 1.2 | 44% |
Ivory Coast (2021) |
3.30 | 30.1 | 0.88 | 0.0 | 43% |
Slovenia | 3.19 | 24.0 | 1.17 | 0.0 | 31% |
South Africa |
3.02 | 1.4 | 0.75 | 0.0 | 46% |
Tanzania (2021) | 3.00 | 36.7 | 0.60 | 1.7 | 57% |
Bolivia | 2.88 | 25.6 | 0.80 | 0.0 | 41% |
Latvia | 2.77 | 54.6 | 1.61 | 1.3 | 20% |
Honduras (2021) | 2.70 | 22.5 | 0.85 | 1.2 | 36% |
El Salvador |
2.41 | 31.6 | 0.57 | 0.0 | 48% |
Armenia (2021) | 2.20 | 30.1 | 1.35 | 0.0 | 19% |
Poland | 2.06 | 1.2 | 0.98 | 1.0 | 24% |
Czech Republic | 2.02 | 2.4 | 1.11 | 0.0 | 21% |
Guinea (2021) | 2.00 | 71.9 | 0.81 | 37.3 | 28% |
Montenegro | 1.45 | 43.8 | 0.70 | 0.0 | 24% |
North Macedonia | 1.34 | 23.4 | 0.69 | 0.0 | 22% |
Azerbaijan (2021) | 1.28 | 4.9 | 1.16 | 0.9 | 13% |
Morocco (2021) | 1.21 | 2.9 | 1.31 | 0.0 | 11% |
Namibia (2021) | 1.10 | 70.1 | 0.35 | 0.0 | 36% |
Economics
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2022) |
The weighted average cost of capital is a major factor.[1]
See also
- Energy transition
- Hydraulic engineering
- International Hydropower Association
- International Rivers
- List of energy storage power plants
- List of hydroelectric power station failures
- List of largest power stations
- List of renewable energy topics by country and territory
- Lists of hydroelectric power stations
- Marine current power – electricity from sea currents
- National Hydropower Association (US)
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Hydropower Special Market Report – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-01-30.
- ^ Renewables 2011 Global Status Report, page 25, Hydropower, REN21, published 2011, accessed 2016-02-19.
- ISSN 1748-9326.
- S2CID 154405904.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-04-21.
- ^ a b IEA (2022), Renewables 2022, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022, License: CC BY 4.0
- ^ "BP Statistical Review 2019" (PDF). Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ "Large hydropower dams not sustainable in the developing world". BBC News. 5 November 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- ^ One of the Oldest Hydroelectric Power Plants in Europa Built on Tesla's Principels, Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Teun Koetsier and Marco Ceccarelli, 2012.
- ^ Maxine Berg, The age of manufactures, 1700-1820: Industry, innovation and work in Britain (Routledge, 2005).
- ^ a b "History of Hydropower". U.S. Department of Energy.
- ^ a b "Hydroelectric Power". Water Encyclopedia.
- ^ Association for Industrial Archaeology (1987). Industrial archaeology review, Volumes 10-11. Oxford University Press. p. 187.
- ^ "Hydroelectric power - energy from falling water". Clara.net.
- ^ "Boulder Canyon Project Act" (PDF). December 21, 1928. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 13, 2011.
- ^ The Evolution of the Flood Control Act of 1936, Joseph L. Arnold, United States Army Corps of Engineers, 1988 Archived 2007-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Hydropower". The Book of Knowledge. Vol. 9 (1945 ed.). p. 3220.
- ^ "Hoover Dam and Lake Mead". U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.
- ^ "Hydropower – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-01-30.
- ^ "Renewable Energy Essentials: Hydropower" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-29. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
- ^ "Hydroelectricity - Renewable Energy Generation". www.electricityforum.com.
- ^ "Pumped Storage, Explained". Archived from the original on December 31, 2012.
- ^ "Run-of-the-River Hydropower Goes With the Flow". 31 January 2012.
- ^ "Energy Resources: Tidal power". www.darvill.clara.net.
- ^ a b c Hemanth Kumar (March 2021). "World's biggest hydroelectric power plants". Retrieved 2022-02-05.
- ^ Pope, Gregory T. (December 1995), "The seven wonders of the modern world", Popular Mechanics, pp. 48–56
- ^ Renewables Global Status Report 2006 Update Archived July 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, REN21, published 2006
- ^ Renewables Global Status Report 2009 Update Archived July 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, REN21, published 2009
- ^ "Micro Hydro in the fight against poverty". Tve.org. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2012-07-22.
- ^ "Pico Hydro Power". T4cd.org. Archived from the original on 2009-07-31. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- ISBN 978-1-4419-1023-3.
- ^ "About 25% of U.S. power plants can start up within an hour - Today in Energy - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 2022-01-30.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-12-656153-1.
- ^ Geological Survey (U.S.) (1980). Geological Survey Professional Paper. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 10.
- ^ Hydropower – A Way of Becoming Independent of Fossil Energy? Archived 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Beyond Three Gorges in China". Waterpowermagazine.com. 2007-01-10. Archived from the original on 2011-06-14.
- SSRN 2406852.
- ^ "2018 Hydropower Status Report: Sector Trends and Insights" (PDF). International Hydropower Association. 2018. p. 16. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
- doi:10.1038/ngeo1226.
- ^ Atkins, William (2003). "Hydroelectric Power". Water: Science and Issues. 2: 187–191.
- ^ Robbins, Paul (2007). "Hydropower". Encyclopedia of Environment and Society. 3.
- ^ "Sedimentation Problems with Dams". Internationalrivers.org. Archived from the original on 2010-10-01. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- ^ "Loss of European silver eel passing a hydropower station | Request PDF".
- ^ "One in five fish dies from passing hydroelectric turbines".
- ^ "Another nail in the coffin for endangered eels". 26 August 2019.
- S2CID 256818410.
- ^ John Macknick and others, A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900.
- ^ Patrick James, H Chansen (1998). "Teaching Case Studies in Reservoir Siltation and Catchment Erosion" (PDF). Great Britain: TEMPUS Publications. pp. 265–275. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-02.
- ISBN 0-918334-80-2.
- ^ a b c Frauke Urban and Tom Mitchell 2011. Climate change, disasters and electricity generation Archived September 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute and Institute of Development Studies
- ^ "Deliberate drowning of Brazil's rainforest is worsening climate change", Daniel Grossman 18 September 2019, New Scientist; retrieved 30 September 2020
- ^ "WCD Findal Report". Dams.org. 2000-11-16. Archived from the original on 2013-08-21.
- ^ Graham-Rowe, Duncan (24 February 2005). "Hydroelectric power's dirty secret revealed". NewScientist.com.
- ^ ""Rediscovered" Wood & The Triton Sawfish". Inhabitat. 2006-11-16.
- ^ "Briefing of World Commission on Dams". Internationalrivers.org. 2008-02-29. Archived from the original on 2008-09-13. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
- ^ References may be found in the list of Dam failures.
- ^ Bruel, Frank. "La catastrophe de Malpasset en 1959". Retrieved 2 September 2015.
- ^ Toccoa Flood USGS Historical Site, retrieved 02sep2009
- ^ "Norway is Europe's cheapest "battery"". SINTEF.no. 18 December 2014.
- ^ "Germany and Norway commission NordLink power cable". Power Technology. 2021-05-28. Retrieved 2022-01-29.
- ^ "Share of electricity production from hydropower". Our World in Data. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
- ^ a b c "Yearly electricity data". ember-climate.org. 6 Dec 2023. Retrieved 23 Dec 2023.
- ^ "Paraguay: a significant electricity exporter, but citizens suffer outages". Dialogo China. 14 Jun 2022. Retrieved 30 Dec 2023.
External links
- Hydroelectricity at Curlie
- Hydropower Reform Coalition
- Interactive demonstration on the effects of dams on rivers Archived 2019-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
- European Small Hydropower Association
- IEC TC 4: Hydraulic turbines (International Electrotechnical Commission - Technical Committee 4) IEC TC 4 portal with access to scope, documents and TC 4 website Archived 2015-04-27 at the Wayback Machine