Hydrofoil
A hydrofoil is a lifting surface, or
Description
The hydrofoil usually consists of a
Wider adoption of hydrofoils is prevented by the increased complexity of building and maintaining them. Hydrofoils are generally prohibitively more expensive than conventional watercraft above a certain displacement, so most hydrofoil craft are relatively small, and are mainly used as high-speed passenger ferries, where the relatively high passenger fees can offset the high cost of the craft itself. However, the design is simple enough that there are many human-powered hydrofoil designs. Amateur experimentation and development of the concept is popular.[1]
Hydrodynamic mechanics
Since air and water are governed by similar fluid equations—albeit with different levels of viscosity, density, and compressibility—the hydrofoil and airfoil (both types of foil) create lift in identical ways. The foil shape moves smoothly through the water, deflecting the flow downward, which, following the Euler equations, exerts an upward force on the foil. This turning of the water creates higher pressure on the bottom of the foil and reduced pressure on the top. This pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flow field about the foil has a higher average velocity on one side than the other.
When used as a lifting element on a hydrofoil boat, this upward force lifts the body of the vessel, decreasing drag and increasing speed. The lifting force eventually balances with the weight of the craft, reaching a point where the hydrofoil no longer lifts out of the water but remains in equilibrium. Since wave resistance and other impeding forces such as various types of drag (physics) on the hull are eliminated as the hull lifts clear, turbulence and drag act increasingly on the much smaller surface area of the hydrofoil, and decreasingly on the hull, creating a marked increase in speed.[2]
Foil configurations
Early hydrofoils used V-shaped foils. Hydrofoils of this type are known as "surface-piercing" since portions of the V-shape hydrofoils rise above the water surface when foilborne. Some modern hydrofoils use fully submerged inverted T-shape foils. Fully submerged hydrofoils are less subject to the effects of wave action, and, therefore, more stable at sea and more comfortable for crew and passengers. This type of configuration, however, is not self-stabilizing. The angle of attack on the hydrofoils must be adjusted continuously to changing conditions, a control process performed by sensors, a computer, and active surfaces.
History
Prototypes
The first evidence of a hydrofoil on a vessel appears on a British patent granted in 1869 to Emmanuel Denis Farcot, a Parisian. He claimed that "adapting to the sides and bottom of the vessel a series or inclined planes or wedge formed pieces, which as the vessel is driven forward will have the effect of lifting it in the water and reducing the draught.".[3] Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini began work on hydrofoils in 1898 and used a "ladder" foil system. Forlanini obtained patents in Britain and the United States for his ideas and designs.[4][5]
Between 1899 and 1901, British boat designer John Thornycroft worked on a series of models with a stepped hull and single bow foil. In 1909 his company built the full scale 22-foot (6.7 m) long boat, Miranda III. Driven by a 60 hp (45 kW) engine, it rode on a bowfoil and flat stern. The subsequent Miranda IV was credited with a speed of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph).[6]
In May 1904 a hydrofoil boat was described being tested on the
A March 1906
On returning to Bell's large laboratory at his
In the early 1950s an English couple built the White Hawk, a jet-powered hydrofoil water craft, in an attempt to beat the absolute water speed record.[10] However, in tests, White Hawk could barely top the record breaking speed of the 1919 HD-4. The designers had faced an engineering phenomenon that limits the top speed of even modern hydrofoils: cavitation disturbs the lift created by the foils as they move through the water at speed above 60 kn (110 km/h; 69 mph), bending the lifting foil.[11]
First passenger boats
German engineer Hanns von Schertel worked on hydrofoils prior to and during
From 1952 to 1971, Supramar designed many models of hydrofoils: PT20, PT50, PT75, PT100 and PT150. All are of surface-piercing type, except the PT150 combining a surface-piercing foil forward with a fully submerged foil in the aft location. Over 200 of Supramar's design were built, most of them by Rodriquez (headed at the time by Engineer Carlo Rodriquez in Sicily, Italy.
During the same period the
In 1961,
Military usage
Germany
A 17-ton German craft VS-6 Hydrofoil was designed and constructed in 1940, completed in 1941 for use as a mine layer,;it was tested in the Baltic Sea, producing speeds of 47 knots. Tested against a standard E-boat over the next three years it performed well but was not brought into production. Being faster it could carry a higher payload and was capable of travelling over minefields but was prone to damage and noisier.[14]
Canada
In Canada during World War II, Baldwin worked on an experimental smoke laying hydrofoil (later called the Comox Torpedo) that was later superseded by other smoke-laying technology and an experimental target-towing hydrofoil. The forward two foil assemblies of what is believed to be the latter hydrofoil were salvaged in the mid-1960s from a derelict hulk in Baddeck, Nova Scotia by Colin MacGregor Stevens. These were donated to the Maritime Museum in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The
Soviet Union
The USSR introduced several hydrofoil-based fast attack craft into their navy, principally:
- Sarancha class missile boat, a unique vessel built in the 1970s
- Turya class torpedo boat, introduced in 1972 and still in service
- Matka class missile boat, introduced in the 1980s and still in service
- Muravey class patrol boat, introduced in the 1980s and still in service
United States
The US Navy began experiments with hydrofoils in the mid-1950s by funding a sailing vessel that used hydrofoils to reach speeds in the 30 mph range.[15] The XCH-4 (officially, Experimental Craft, Hydrofoil No. 4), designed by William P. Carl, exceeded speeds of 65 mph (56 kn; 105 km/h) and was mistaken for a seaplane due to its shape.[16]
The US Navy implemented a small number of combat hydrofoils, such as the
Italy
The
Sailing and sports
Several editions of the America's Cup have been raced with foiling yachts. In 2013 and 2017 respectively the AC72 and AC50 classes of catamaran, and in 2021 the AC75 class of foiling monohulls with canting arms.
The French experimental sail powered hydrofoil Hydroptère is the result of a research project that involves advanced engineering skills and technologies. In September 2009, the Hydroptère set new sailcraft world speed records in the 500 m category, with a speed of 51.36 knots (95.12 km/h) and in the 1 nautical mile (1852 m) category with a speed of 50.17 knots (92.91 km/h).[18][19]
The 500 m speed record for sailboats is currently held by the Vestas Sailrocket, an exotic design which operates in effect as a hydrofoil.[20]
Another trimaran sailboat is the Windrider Rave.[21] The Rave is a commercially available 17-foot (5.2 m), two person, hydrofoil trimaran, capable of reaching speeds of 40 kn (74 km/h). The boat was designed by Jim Brown.
The Moth dinghy has evolved into some radical foil configurations.[22]
Hobie Sailboats produced a production foiling trimaran, the Hobie Trifoiler, the fastest production sailboat. Trifoilers have clocked speeds upward of thirty knots.
A new kayak design, called Flyak, has hydrofoils that lift the kayak enough to significantly reduce drag, allowing speeds of up to 27 km/h (17 mph). Some surfers have developed surfboards with hydrofoils called foilboards, specifically aimed at surfing big waves further out to sea.[23]
Quadrofoil Q2 is a two-seater, four-foiled hydrofoil electrical leisure watercraft. Its initial design was set in 2012 and it has been available commercially since the end of 2016. Powered by a 5.2-kWh lithium-ion battery pack and propelled by a 5.5 kW motor, it reaches the top speed of 40 km/h and has 80 km of range.[24][25]
The Manta5 Hydrofoiler XE-1 is a Hydrofoil E-bike, designed and built in New Zealand that has since been available commercially for pre-order since late 2017.[26] Propelled by a 400 watt motor, it can reach speeds exceeding 14 km/h with a weight of 22 kg. A single charge of the battery lasts an hour for a rider weighing 85 kg.[27]
Candela, a Swedish company, is producing a recreational hydrofoil powerboat, making strong claims for efficiency, performance, and range.[28]
Hydrofoils are now widely used with
Modern passenger boats
Soviet-built
Mid-2010s saw a Russian governmental program aimed at restoring passenger hydrofoil production. The Kometa 120M , based on the earlier Kometa, Kolhida and Katran models, became the first to enter production,[36] initially on Vympel factory in Rybinsk, and later on More shipyard in Feodosiya.[37] Since 2018, the ships are running Sevastopol-Yalta and Sochi-Gelenzhik-Novorossiysk, with a Sevastopol-Sochi connection in the immediate plans in 2021.[38] At the same time, the Alekseyev Bureau began building lighter, smaller Valday 45R hydrofoils, based on a widely successful Polesye model, at its own plant in Nizhny Novgorod,[39] the relatively shallow-draft boats used on the Ob and the Volga. The Meteor 120R , a development of the Meteor , became the Valday's larger sibling, the first ship launched in Nizhny Novgorod in August 2021.[40]
The
Current operation
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2022) |
Current operators of hydrofoils include:
- Kowloon. Operated by Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited.
- Voskhod and Polesye service between Tulcea and Sulina on the Danube.
- Meteor and Polesye service in Poland between Szczecin and Świnoujście.
- Cometa service between Nizhneangarsk and Irkutsk on Lake Baikal.
- Cometa service between Vladivostok and Slavyanka.
- Polesye service between Pripyat River (Belarus).
- Meteor service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Peterhof Palace, a summer palace of Russian tsars.
- Meteor service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Kronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian seaport town, located on Kotlin Island, near the head of the Gulf of Finland. It lies thirty kilometers west of Saint Petersburg. Since 2012 replaced by a catamaran Mercury.
- Meteor, Raketa and Voskhod hydrofoil types operate all over Amur River.
- Meteor hydrofoils are operated by a number of tour operators in Croatia, mostly for packaged tours, but there are also some scheduled services to islands in Adriatic.
- Hydrofoils are regularly operated on the three major Italian lakes by branches of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport: Navigazione Lago Maggiore services routes on Lake Maggiore between Locarno and Arona, Navigazione Lago di Como services routes on Lake Como, and Navigazione Lago di Garda services routes on Lake Garda. Three units of the Rodriguez RHS150 type operate on each lake, for a total of nine hydrofoils.
- Former Russian hydrofoils are used in southern Italy for connection with islands of Lazio and Campania. SNAV has five RHS200, RHS160 and RHS150 used in the connections between Naples and the islands of Capri and Ischia.
- A regular hydrofoil service runs from Istanbul to Yalova.
- Hellenic Seaways operate their Flying Dolphins service over many routes in the Aegean, between the Cyclades, Saronic Gulf islands such as Aegina and Poros, and Athens.
- Meteor (2), Polesye (4) and Voskhod (3) hydrofoil types operate in Hungary. MAHART PassNave Ltd. operates scheduled hydrofoil liners between Budapest, Bratislava and Vienna, inland liners between Budapest and the Danube Bend, and theme cruises to Komárom, Solt, Kalocsa and Mohács.
- "Kometa" Flying Dolphin services are currently operated by Joy Cruises between Paxos. They run from Corfu Port to Gaiosusing two hydrofoils: Ilida and Ilida II. The company operates also an international service from Corfu to Saranda (Albania) using the hydrofoil Ilida Dolphin of the same type.
- "Kometa" type hydrofoils (registered in Albania) are operated by Ionian Cruises and Finikas Lines between Saranda and Corfu.
- Russian hydrofoils of the Kometa type operated on the Rousse and Vidin. Both services were discontinued in the 1990s. In 2011 the service reopened between Varna, Nesebar, Burgas and Sozopol, operated by Bulgarian Hydrofoils Ltd.
- Vietnamese Greenline Company operates hourly shuttle service between Phu Quoc Islandin the South.
- The service between Boeing 929.
- As of February 2008, all of the commercial lines in Japan use Boeing 929. The routes include:
- Niigata.
- Atamiand Izu Ōshima.
- .
- Nakadōrijima.
- Kagoshima and Tanegashima or Yakushima.
- In 2012, Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (AFCD) in Hong Kong leased a 12-meter HAWC (Hydrofoil Assisted Water Craft), a catamaran, to patrol the Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark in the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region.
- In 2017, Voskhod boat began operating on 2 lines in Ukraine: Nova Kakhovka-Kherson-Hola Prystan, Mykolaiv-Kinburn Spit, Ochakiv-Kinburn Spit.[41]
- In July 2018, the new generation Kometa 120M boat has started operation on the busy Sevastopol-Yalta route in Crimea, with the plans to add two more and possible other routes in 2019.
- In Italy hydrofoils have been used for commercial connections since 1956, by the Rodriguez shipyards and the SNAV company.
Currently, the main hydrofoil operator in Italy is Liberty Lines, which operates connections between the smaller Sicilian islands with Sicily and Calabria and between Trieste and some towns on the Croatian coast. SNAV operates connections between Naples and the smaller Campanian islands and - in the summer period - between Naples and the Aeolian Islands. In summer, Aliscost operates a connection between Salerno and some coastal towns of Campania and the Aeolian Islands.
Discontinued operations
- Until 31 December 2013, Fast Flying Ferries operated by Amsterdam Central Station and Velsen-Zuid in the Netherlands, using Voskhod 2M hydrofoils. It was stopped due to a new speed limit.[42]
- Between 1981 and 1990, Transmediterranea operated a service of hydrofoils connecting Ceuta and Algeciras in the Strait of Gibraltar. The crossing took half an hour, in comparison to the hour and a half of conventional ferries. Due to the common extreme winds and storms that take place in winter in the Strait of Gibraltar, the service was replaced in 1990 by catamarans, which were also able to carry cars. At the peak of the year, in summer, there was a service every half an hour in each direction. This high-speed connection had a big impact on the development of Ceuta, facilitating one-day business trips to mainland Spain.
- Between 1964 and 1991 the Sydney hydrofoils operated on Sydney Harbour between Circular Quay and Manly.
- Between 1969 and 1998 Red Funnel operated between Southampton and Cowes, Isle of Wight.[43]
- During the 1970s and 1980s there were frequent services between Belgrade and Tekija in Đerdap gorge. The distance of 220 km (120 nmi; 140 mi) was covered in 3 hours and 30 minutes downstream and 4 hours upstream.[44]
- Between 1980 and 1981, Boeing 929 jetfoil, named Cú Na Mara (Hound of the Sea), between Liverpool and Dublin. The service was not successful and was discontinued at the end of the 1981 season.[45]
- Between the 1960s and 1985 there were hydrofoils going between Malmö, Sweden and Copenhagen, Denmark. They were retired and exchanged for catamarans. The service got cancelled when the Öresund Bridge got built in the early 2000s.
- Condor Ferries operated six hydrofoil ferries over a 29-year period between the Channel Islands, the south coast of England and Saint-Malo in France.
- Following the restoration of Estonian independence in the 1990s, the regular ferry service between Helsinki and Tallinn was augmented by Soviet built hydrofoils during the summer season in periods of good weather. The higher speed service competed with the traditional ro-ro ferries but allowed easy day trips for pedestrian travellers. They were ultimately replaced with high-speed catamarans that could also carry vehicles and have better seaworthiness; however, the latter ceased operations as the operator filed for bankruptcy in May 2018.[46]
See also
- Boeing hydrofoils
- Disco Volante
- Flyak – a hydrofoil kayak
- Foilboard
- The Hydrofoil Mystery – historical fiction
- Hydroplane, a different application of lift to the hull itself
- Planing (sailing)
- Raketa
- Riverboat
- Sailing hydrofoil
- Sit-down hydrofoil
- Supercavitation
- Trampofoil– a one-person human-powered hydrofoil
- Voskhod
- LISA Akoya– amphibious plane with hydrofoil assisted takeoff
References
- ^ hydrofoil design - YouTube.
- ^ Rosado, Tina (1999). "Hydrofoils". Reports on How Things Work. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
- ^ "Early Hydrofoils". histarmar.com.ar. Retrieved 26 February 2019.
- ^ Dixon, Malin. "Forlanini". The Hydrofoil Resource Site. International Hydrofoil Society. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
- ^ "Italian Hydroplane of Curious Type." Popular Mechanics, December 1911, p. 927.
- ^ "Thornycroft Model Collection". Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
- ^ The Principle of the Aeroplane Applied to the Boat, The Automotor Journal, 21 May 1904, p21
- ^ The Hydroplane or Gliding Boat, St James's Gazette, 24 May 1904, p16
- ^ "Hydrofoil". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012.
- ^ "Jet Hydrofoil Shoots At World Record" Popular Mechanics, August 1953, pp. 70-71
- ^ The World Water Speed Record by Leo Villa and Kevin Desmond, 1976
- ^ SRI International (1961). "The Economic Feasibility of Passenger Hydrofoil Craft in U.S. Domestic and Foreign Commerce". Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
- ^ Dixon, Malin. "Enterprise". Archived from the original on 28 April 2010. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
- ^ Channel Islands Occupation Review No 34. Channel Islands Occupation Society. 2006.
- ^ "Sail Boat Stilts Boost Speed." Popular Mechanics, February 1956, p. 136.
- ^ "XCH4". International Hydrofoil Society. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
- ^ George Jenkins (1 November 2000). "Patrol Combatant Missile (Hydrofoil): PHM History 1973–1995" (PDF). Foils.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
- ^ "World Sailing Speed Record Council". sailspeedrecords.com.
- ^ "World Sailing Speed Record Council". sailspeedrecords.com.
- ^ Fisher, Adam. "How a Boat-Plane Hybrid Shattered the Sound Barrier of Sailing". Wired. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
- ^ Windrider. "Windrider Wave". Archived from the original on 9 May 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
- ^ Branigan, David (20 September 2013). "Gliding on top of the water is still sailing but not as we know it". The Irish Times.
- ^ Scott Bass (2009). "Laird Hamilton: A Surfermag.com exclusive interview". Surfer Magazine. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
- ^ Stu Robarts (15 December 2016). "Electric hydrofoil finally ready to skim the waves". New Atlas. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
- ^ Fred Lambert (22 December 2016). "All-electric Quadrofoil will soon allow you to fly on water – production is ready, says CEO". Electrek. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
- ^ "Hydrofoil water bike to launch before Christmas". 2017.
- ^ "Ride on water: Pre-sale reservations now available for Manta5 hydrofoiling e-bike". 2018.
- ^ Toll, Micah (25 August 2020). "Watch the world's first electric hydrofoil boat in action". Elektrek. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
- ^ "The bright and dark sides of kite foilboarding". Surfer Today. 28 January 2014.
- ^ Jourdan, Romain (21 January 2021). "Windfoiling vs Windsurfing – Is Foil is the Future?". Wind Foil Zone.
- ^ Morgan, Liam (1 November 2019). "World Sailing Council approve Starboard iFoil as windsurfing equipment at Paris 2024". Inside the Games. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
- ^ Clothier, Chris (18 June 2021). "The only way is up: the irresistible rise of wing foiling". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022.
- ^ "Flying Poseidon". Marinetraffic.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2013.
- ^ "Russian Hydrofoil Page".
- ^ Connexxion. "Fast Flying Ferry". Archived from the original on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
- ^ "Комета взяла курс на полуостров" [Kometa has set course for the peninsula]. vm.ru (in Russian). Вечерняя Москва. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
- ^ "В Крыму приступили к постройке двух скоростных "Комет" для пассажирских перевозок" [Production of two high-speed "Komets" has started in Crimea]. tass.ru (in Russian). TASS. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
- ^ "Сочи и Севастополь свяжут морские пассажирские "Кометы"" [Sea-going passenger "Komets" will link Sochi and Sevastopol] (in Russian). korabel.ru. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
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- ^ "Первый "Метеор 120Р" нового поколения спустили на воду в Нижегородской области" [The first new-generation «Meteor 120R» has been launched in Nizhny Novgorod oblast]. morvesti.ru (in Russian). Морские вести России. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
- ^ Днепр отныне можно преодолеть на ракете. - dnepr.news
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- ^ "A History of Roll on". archive.ph. 19 March 2006. Archived from the original on 19 March 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
- ^ "Linda Line declared bankrupt by court". ERR. 25 May 2018.
External links
- The International Hydrofoil Society
- Fast CC Hydrofoil design by Prof. KG Hoppe, inventor of HYSUCAT technology patented by University of Stellenbosch, S.A.
- HYFOIL Marine has cooperative technology agreements with Prof. KG Hoppe
- Hydrofoil Assisted Water Craft employing HYSUCAT and HYSUWAC patents in their projects and vessels currently in operation
- Swiss experimental hydrofoils
- HyRaii - Hydrofoil Sailboat, Student Project ETH Zurich