Hydrogen peroxide
![]() Ball stick model of the hydrogen peroxide molecule
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Names | |||
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IUPAC name
Hydrogen peroxide
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Other names
Dioxidane
Oxidanyl Perhydroxic acid 0-hydroxyol Dihydrogen dioxide Oxygenated water Peroxaan | |||
Identifiers | |||
3D model (
JSmol ) |
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ChEBI | |||
ChEMBL | |||
ChemSpider | |||
ECHA InfoCard
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100.028.878 | ||
EC Number |
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IUPHAR/BPS |
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KEGG | |||
PubChem CID
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RTECS number
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UNII | |||
UN number | 2015 (>60% soln.) 2014 (20–60% soln.) 2984 (8–20% soln.) | ||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |||
H2O2 | |||
Molar mass | 34.0147 g/mol | ||
Appearance | Very light blue liquid | ||
Odor | slightly sharp | ||
Density | 1.11 g/cm3 (20 °C, 30% (w/w) solution)[1] 1.450 g/cm3 (20 °C, pure) | ||
Melting point | −0.43 °C (31.23 °F; 272.72 K) | ||
Boiling point | 150.2 °C (302.4 °F; 423.3 K) (decomposes) | ||
Miscible
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Solubility | soluble in ether, alcohol insoluble in petroleum ether | ||
log P | -0.43[2] | ||
Vapor pressure | 5 mmHg (30 °C)[3] | ||
Acidity (pKa) | 11.75 | ||
−17.7·10−6 cm3/mol | |||
Refractive index (nD)
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1.4061 | ||
Viscosity | 1.245 cP (20 °C) | ||
2.26 D | |||
Thermochemistry | |||
Heat capacity (C)
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1.267 J/(g·K) (gas) 2.619 J/(g·K) (liquid) | ||
Std enthalpy of (ΔfH⦵298)formation |
−187.80 kJ/mol | ||
Pharmacology | |||
A01AB02 (WHO) D08AX01 (WHO), D11AX25 (WHO), S02AA06 (WHO) | |||
Hazards | |||
GHS labelling: | |||
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Danger | |||
H271, H302, H314, H332, H335, H412 | |||
P280, P305+P351+P338, P310 | |||
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |||
Flash point | Non-flammable | ||
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC): | |||
LD50 (median dose)
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1518 mg/kg[citation needed] 2000 mg/kg (oral, mouse)[4] | ||
LC50 (median concentration)
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1418 ppm (rat, 4 hr)[4] | ||
LCLo (lowest published)
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227 ppm (mouse)[4] | ||
NIOSH (US health exposure limits): | |||
PEL (Permissible)
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TWA 1 ppm (1.4 mg/m3)[3] | ||
REL (Recommended)
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TWA 1 ppm (1.4 mg/m3)[3] | ||
IDLH (Immediate danger) |
75 ppm[3] | ||
Safety data sheet (SDS) | ICSC 0164 (>60% soln.) | ||
Related compounds | |||
Related compounds
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Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Hydrogen peroxide is a
Hydrogen peroxide is a
Properties
The boiling point of H2O2 has been extrapolated as being 150.2 °C (302.4 °F), approximately 50 °C (90 °F) higher than water. In practice, hydrogen peroxide will undergo potentially explosive thermal decomposition if heated to this temperature. It may be safely distilled at lower temperatures under reduced pressure.[7]
Structure

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a nonplanar molecule with (twisted) C2
The approximately 100°
The molecular structures of gaseous and
Aqueous solutions
In

H2O2 ( w/w ) |
Density (g/cm3) |
Temp. (°C) |
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3% | 1.0095 | 15 |
27% | 1.10 | 20 |
35% | 1.13 | 20 |
50% | 1.20 | 20 |
70% | 1.29 | 20 |
75% | 1.33 | 20 |
96% | 1.42 | 20 |
98% | 1.43 | 20 |
100% | 1.45 | 20 |
Comparison with analogues
Hydrogen peroxide has several structural analogues with HmX−XHn bonding arrangements (water also shown for comparison). It has the highest (theoretical) boiling point of this series (X = O, S, N, P). Its melting point is also fairly high, being comparable to that of hydrazine and water, with only hydroxylamine crystallising significantly more readily, indicative of particularly strong hydrogen bonding. Diphosphane and hydrogen disulfide exhibit only weak hydrogen bonding and have little chemical similarity to hydrogen peroxide. Structurally, the analogues all adopt similar skewed structures, due to repulsion between adjacent lone pairs.
Name | Formula | Molar mass (g/mol) |
Melting point (°C) |
Boiling point (°C) |
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Water | HOH | 18.02 | 0.00 | 99.98 |
Hydrogen peroxide | HOOH | 34.01 | −0.43 | 150.2* |
Hydrogen disulfide | HSSH | 66.15 | −89.6 | 70.7 |
Hydrazine | H2NNH2 | 32.05 | 2 | 114 |
Hydroxylamine | NH2OH | 33.03 | 33 | 58* |
Diphosphane | H2PPH2 | 65.98 | −99 | 63.5* |
Discovery
Alexander von Humboldt is sometimes said to have been the first to report the first synthetic peroxide, barium peroxide, in 1799 as a by-product of his attempts to decompose air, although this is disputed due to von Humboldt's ambiguous wording.[15] Nineteen years later Louis Jacques Thénard recognized that this compound could be used for the preparation of a previously unknown compound, which he described as eau oxygénée ("oxygenated water") – subsequently known as hydrogen peroxide.[16][17][18] Today, the term "oxygenated water" may appear on retail packaging referring to mixtures containing either water and hydrogen peroxide or water and dissolved oxygen. This could cause personal injury if the difference is not properly understood by the user.[19]
An improved version of Thénard's process used hydrochloric acid, followed by addition of sulfuric acid to precipitate the barium sulfate byproduct. This process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century.[20]
The bleaching effect of peroxides and their salts on
Early attempts failed to produce neat hydrogen peroxide. Anhydrous hydrogen peroxide was first obtained by vacuum distillation.[22]
Determination of the molecular structure of hydrogen peroxide proved to be very difficult. In 1892, the Italian physical chemist Giacomo Carrara (1864–1925) determined its molecular mass by freezing-point depression, which confirmed that its molecular formula is H2O2.[23] H2O=O seemed to be just as possible as the modern structure, and as late as in the middle of the 20th century at least half a dozen hypothetical isomeric variants of two main options seemed to be consistent with the available evidence.[24] In 1934, the English mathematical physicist William Penney and the Scottish physicist Gordon Sutherland proposed a molecular structure for hydrogen peroxide that was very similar to the presently accepted one.[25][26]
Previously, hydrogen peroxide was prepared industrially by hydrolysis of ammonium persulfate:
which was itself obtained by the electrolysis of a solution of ammonium bisulfate ([NH4]HSO4) in sulfuric acid:[27]
Production

Today, hydrogen peroxide is manufactured almost exclusively by the anthraquinone process, which was originally developed by BASF in 1939. It begins with the reduction of an anthraquinone (such as 2-ethylanthraquinone or the 2-amyl derivative) to the corresponding anthrahydroquinone, typically by hydrogenation on a palladium catalyst. In the presence of oxygen, the anthrahydroquinone then undergoes autoxidation: the labile hydrogen atoms of the hydroxy groups transfer to the oxygen molecule, to give hydrogen peroxide and regenerating the anthraquinone. Most commercial processes achieve oxidation by bubbling compressed air through a solution of the anthrahydroquinone, with the hydrogen peroxide then extracted from the solution and the anthraquinone recycled back for successive cycles of hydrogenation and oxidation.[28][29]
The net reaction for the anthraquinone-catalyzed process is :[28]
- H2 + O2 → H2O2
The economics of the process depend heavily on effective recycling of the extraction solvents, the hydrogenation catalyst and the expensive quinone.
Other sources
Small, but detectable, amounts of hydrogen peroxide can be formed by several methods. Small amounts are formed by electrolysis of dilute acid around the
A commercially viable process to produce hydrogen peroxide directly from the environment has been of interest for many years. Efficient direct synthesis is difficult to achieve, as the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen thermodynamically favours production of water. Systems for direct synthesis have been developed, most of which employ finely dispersed metal catalysts similar to those used for hydrogenation of organic substrates.[31][32] One economic obstacle has been that direct processes give a dilute solution uneconomic for transportation. None of these has yet reached a point where it can be used for industrial-scale synthesis.
Availability
Hydrogen peroxide is most commonly available as a solution in water. For consumers, it is usually available from pharmacies at 3 and 6
In 1994, world production of H2O2 was around 1.9 million tonnes and grew to 2.2 million in 2006,
Natural occurrence
Hydrogen peroxide occurs in surface water, in groundwater, and in the
Reactions
Decomposition
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water and oxygen with a
of 70.5 J/(mol·K):The rate of decomposition increases with rise in temperature, concentration, and
Redox reactions
The redox properties of hydrogen peroxide depend on pH as acidic conditions exacerbate the power of oxidizing agents and basic conditions exacerbate the power of reducing agents. As hydrogen peroxide exhibits ambivalent redox properties, being simultaneously an oxidizer or a reductant, its redox behavior immediately depends on pH.
In acidic solutions, H2O2 is a powerful
H2O2 is a source of hydroxyl radicals (•OH), which are highly reactive.
Oxidizing reagent |
Reduced product |
Oxidation potential (V) |
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F2 | HF | 3.0 |
O3 | O2 | 2.1 |
H2O2 | H2O | 1.8 |
KMnO4 | MnO2 | 1.7 |
ClO2 | HClO | 1.5 |
Cl2 | Cl− | 1.4 |
In acidic solutions, Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+ (hydrogen peroxide acting as an oxidizing agent):
and sulfite (SO2−3) is oxidized to sulfate (SO2−4). However, potassium permanganate is reduced to Mn2+ by acidic H2O2.
Under
In basic solutions, hydrogen peroxide is a strong reductant and can reduce a variety of inorganic ions. When H2O2 acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. For example, hydrogen peroxide will reduce sodium hypochlorite and potassium permanganate, which is a convenient method for preparing oxygen in the laboratory:
Organic reactions
Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an
Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for
Precursor to other peroxide compounds
Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, forming hydroperoxide or peroxide salts with many metals.
It also converts metal oxides into the corresponding peroxides. For example, upon treatment with hydrogen peroxide, chromic acid (CrO3 and H2SO4) forms a blue peroxide CrO(O2)2.
This kind of reaction is used industrially to produce peroxoanions. For example, reaction with borax leads to sodium perborate, a bleach used in laundry detergents:
H2O2 converts carboxylic acids (RCO2H) into peroxy acids (RC(O)O2H), which are themselves used as oxidizing agents. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with acetone to form acetone peroxide and with ozone to form trioxidane. Hydrogen peroxide forms stable adducts with urea (Hydrogen peroxide - urea), sodium carbonate (sodium percarbonate) and other compounds.[41] An acid-base adduct with triphenylphosphine oxide is a useful "carrier" for H2O2 in some reactions.
Hydrogen peroxide is both an oxidizing agent and reducing agent. The oxidation of hydrogen peroxide by sodium hypochlorite yields singlet oxygen. The net reaction of a ferric ion with hydrogen peroxide is a ferrous ion and oxygen. This proceeds via single electron oxidation and hydroxyl radicals. This is used in some organic chemistry oxidations, e.g. in the Fenton's reagent. Only catalytic quantities of iron ion is needed since peroxide also oxidizes ferrous to ferric ion. The net reaction of hydrogen peroxide and permanganate or manganese dioxide is manganous ion; however, until the peroxide is spent some manganese ions are reoxidized to make the reaction catalytic. This forms the basis for common monopropellant rockets.
Biological function
Hydrogen peroxide is formed in humans and other animals as a short-lived product in biochemical processes and is toxic to cells. The toxicity is due to oxidation of proteins, membrane lipids and DNA by the peroxide ions.[42] The class of biological enzymes called superoxide dismutase (SOD) is developed in nearly all living cells as an important antioxidant agent. They promote the disproportionation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which is then rapidly decomposed by the enzyme catalase to oxygen and water.[43]
Catalase, another peroxisomal enzyme, uses this H2O2 to oxidize other substrates, including phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde, and alcohol, by means of a peroxidation reaction:
thus eliminating the poisonous hydrogen peroxide in the process.
This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells, where the peroxisomes neutralize various toxic substances that enter the blood. Some of the ethanol humans drink is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this way.[47] In addition, when excess H2O2 accumulates in the cell, catalase converts it to H2O through this reaction:
Another origin of hydrogen peroxide is the degradation of adenosine monophosphate which yields hypoxanthine. Hypoxanthine is then oxidatively catabolized first to xanthine and then to uric acid, and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme xanthine oxidase:[48]

The degradation of guanosine monophosphate yields xanthine as an intermediate product which is then converted in the same way to uric acid with the formation of hydrogen peroxide.[48]
Eggs of sea urchin, shortly after fertilization by a sperm, produce hydrogen peroxide. It is then quickly dissociated to HO• radicals. The radicals serve as initiator of radical polymerization, which surrounds the eggs with a protective layer of polymer.[49]
The
Hydrogen peroxide is a
Hydrogen peroxide has roles as a signalling molecule in the regulation of a wide variety of biological processes.
The amount of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems can be assayed using a fluorometric assay.[60]
Uses
Bleaching
About 60% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide is used for
Production of organic compounds
It is used in the production of various
Sewage treatment
Hydrogen peroxide is used in certain waste-water treatment processes to remove organic impurities. In
Disinfectant
Hydrogen peroxide may be used for the sterilization of various surfaces,
Hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally safe alternative to
Propellant

High-concentration H2O2 is referred to as "high-test peroxide" (HTP). It can be used either as a
As a bipropellant, H2O2 is decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer. Specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel. Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower Isp than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, non-cryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures using an efficient closed cycle. It may also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World War II German rocket motors (e.g.
In the 1940s and 1950s, the Hellmuth Walter KG–conceived turbine used hydrogen peroxide for use in submarines while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to diesel-electric power systems. Some torpedoes used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant. Operator error in the use of hydrogen-peroxide torpedoes was named as possible causes for the sinking of HMS Sidon and the Russian submarine Kursk.[77] SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000. This torpedo, used by the Swedish Navy, is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel in a bipropellant system.[78][79]
Household use

Hydrogen peroxide has various domestic uses, primarily as a cleaning and disinfecting agent.
- Hair bleaching
Diluted H2O2 (between 1.9% and 12%) mixed with
- Removal of blood stains
Hydrogen peroxide reacts with blood as a bleaching agent, and so if a blood stain is fresh, or not too old, liberal application of hydrogen peroxide, if necessary in more than single application, will bleach the stain fully out. After about two minutes of the application, the blood should be firmly blotted out.[83][84]
- Acne treatment
Hydrogen peroxide may be used to treat
Niche uses
- Glow sticks
Hydrogen peroxide reacts with certain di-
- Horticulture
Some horticulturalists and users of hydroponics advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution in watering solutions. Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant's root development and helps to treat root rot (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen) and a variety of other pests.[86][87]
For general watering concentrations around 0.1% is in use and this can be increased up to one percent for anti-fungal actions.[88] Tests show that plant foliage can safely tolerate concentrations up to 3%.[89]
- Fishkeeping
Hydrogen peroxide is used in aquaculture for controlling mortality caused by various microbes. In 2019, the U.S. FDA approved it for control of Saprolegniasis in all coldwater finfish and all fingerling and adult coolwater and warmwater finfish, for control of external columnaris disease in warm-water finfish, and for control of Gyrodactylus spp. in freshwater-reared salmonids.[90] Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide may be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. The hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide.
- Removing yellowing from aged plastics
Hydrogen peroxide may be used in combination with a UV-light source to remove yellowing from white or light grey
Safety
Regulations vary, but low concentrations, such as 5%, are widely available and legal to buy for medical use. Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion. Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and typically are accompanied by a safety data sheet (SDS). In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials, including human skin. In the presence of a reducing agent, high concentrations of H2O2 will react violently.[91] While concentrations up to 35% produce only "white" oxygen bubbles in the skin (and some biting pain) that disappear with the blood within 30-45 minutes, concentrations of 98% dissolve paper. However concentrations as low as 3% can be dangerous for the eye because of oxygen evolution within the eye.[92]
High-concentration hydrogen peroxide streams, typically above 40%, should be considered hazardous due to concentrated hydrogen peroxide's meeting the definition of a DOT oxidizer according to U.S. regulations, if released into the environment. The EPA Reportable Quantity (RQ) for D001 hazardous wastes is 100 pounds (45 kg), or approximately 10 US gallons (38 L), of concentrated hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances. It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable).[93] Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that block light.[94]
Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, may pose several risks, the main one being that it forms explosive mixtures upon contact with organic compounds.[95] Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is highly dangerous. It is also corrosive, especially when concentrated, but even domestic-strength solutions may cause irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin.[96] Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (ten times the volume of a 3% solution), leading to internal bloating. Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation.[97]
With a significant vapour pressure (1.2 kPa at 50 °C),
Wound healing
Historically, hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds, partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other antiseptics.[102]
There is conflicting evidence on hydrogen peroxide's effect on wound healing. Some research finds benefit, while other research find delays and healing inhibition.[103] Its use for home treatment of wounds is generally contraindicated.[104] 1.5–3% Hydrogen peroxide is used as a desinfectant in dentistry, especially in endodotic treatments together with hypochlorite and chlorhexidin and 1–1.5% is also useful for treatment of inflammation of third molars (wisdom teeth).[105]
Use in alternative medicine
Practitioners of
Both the effectiveness and safety of hydrogen peroxide therapy is scientifically questionable. Hydrogen peroxide is produced by the immune system, but in a carefully controlled manner. Cells called phagocytes engulf pathogens and then use hydrogen peroxide to destroy them. The peroxide is toxic to both the cell and the pathogen and so is kept within a special compartment, called a phagosome. Free hydrogen peroxide will damage any tissue it encounters via oxidative stress, a process that also has been proposed as a cause of cancer.[112] Claims that hydrogen peroxide therapy increases cellular levels of oxygen have not been supported. The quantities administered would be expected to provide very little additional oxygen compared to that available from normal respiration. It is also difficult to raise the level of oxygen around cancer cells within a tumour, as the blood supply tends to be poor, a situation known as tumor hypoxia.
Large oral doses of hydrogen peroxide at a 3% concentration may cause irritation and blistering to the mouth, throat, and abdomen as well as abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea.[107] Ingestion of hydrogen peroxide at concentrations of 35% or higher has been implicated as the cause of numerous gas embolism events resulting in hospitalisation. In these cases, hyperbaric oxygen therapy was used to treat the embolisms.[113]
Intravenous injection of hydrogen peroxide has been linked to several deaths.[109][110][111] The American Cancer Society states that "there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective, or useful cancer treatment."[108] Furthermore, the therapy is not approved by the U.S. FDA.
Historical incidents
- On 16 July 1934, in Kummersdorf, Germany, a propellant tank containing an experimental monopropellant mixture consisting of hydrogen peroxide and ethanol exploded during a test, killing three people.[114]
- During the Second World War, doctors in German concentration camps experimented with the use of hydrogen peroxide injections in the killing of human subjects.[115]
- In April 1992, an explosion occurred at the hydrogen peroxide plant at Jarrie in France, due to technical failure of the computerised control system and resulting in one fatality and wide destruction of the plant.[116]
- Several people received minor injuries after a hydrogen peroxide spill on board a flight between the U.S. cities of Orlando and Memphis on 28 October 1998.[117]
- The Russian submarine HTP, a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide used as propellant for the torpedo, seeped through its container, damaged either by rust or in the loading procedure back on land where an incident involving one of the torpedoes accidentally touching ground went unreported. The vessel was lost with all hands. A similar incident was responsible for the loss of HMS Sidon in 1955.[118]
- On 15 August 2010, a spill of about 30 US gallons (110 L) of cleaning fluid occurred on the 54th floor of 1515 Broadway, in Times Square, New York City. The spill, which a spokesperson for the New York City fire department said was of hydrogen peroxide, shut down Broadway between West 42nd and West 48th streets as fire engines responded to the hazmat situation. There were no reported injuries.[119]
See also
- FOX reagent, used to measure levels of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems
- Hydrogen chalcogenide
- Retrobright, a process using hydrogen peroxide to restore yellowed Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic
References
Notes
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External links


- Hydrogen Peroxide at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)
- Material Safety Data Sheet
- ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ
- International Chemical Safety Card 0164
- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- Process flow sheet of Hydrogen Peroxide Production by anthrahydroquinone autoxidation
- Hydrogen Peroxide Handbook by Rocketdyne
- IR spectroscopic study J. Phys. Chem.