Hyphen
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Hyphen | |||||
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The hyphen ‐ is a punctuation mark used to join words and to separate syllables of a single word. The use of hyphens is called hyphenation.[1] Son-in-law is an example of a hyphenated word.
The hyphen is sometimes confused with
As an orthographic concept, the hyphen is a single entity. In character encoding for use with computers, it is represented in Unicode by any of several characters. These include the dual-use hyphen-minus, the soft hyphen, the nonbreaking hyphen, and an unambiguous form known familiarly as the "Unicode hyphen". The character most often used to represent a hyphen (and the one produced by the key on a keyboard) is called the "hyphen-minus" by Unicode, deriving from the original ASCII standard, where it was called "hyphen (minus)".[2]
Etymology
The word is derived from Ancient Greek ὑφ' ἕν (huph' hén), contracted from ὑπό ἕν (hypó hén), "in one" (literally "under one").
History
The first known documentation of the hyphen is in the grammatical works of
With the introduction of letter spacing in the Middle Ages, the hyphen, still written beneath the text, reversed its meaning. Scribes used the mark to connect two words that had been incorrectly separated by a space. This era also saw the introduction of the marginal hyphen, for words broken across lines.[7]
The modern format of the hyphen originated with Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, c. 1455 with the publication of his 42-line Bible. His tools did not allow for a sublinear hyphen, and he thus moved it to the middle of the line.[8] Examination of an original copy on vellum (Hubay index #35) in the U. S. Library of Congress shows that Gutenberg's movable type was set justified in a uniform style, 42 equal lines per page. The Gutenberg printing press required words made up of individual letters of type to be held in place by a surrounding nonprinting rigid frame. Gutenberg solved the problem of making each line the same length to fit the frame by inserting a hyphen as the last element at the right-side margin. This interrupted the letters in the last word, requiring the remaining letters be carried over to the start of the line below. His double hyphen, ⸗, appears throughout the Bible as a short, double line inclined to the right at a 60-degree angle.[citation needed]
Use in English
This section possibly contains original research. Almost nothing in this section is tied to reliable sources, and there's a great deal of prescriptivist punditry about "codification" of various "rules". (January 2016) |
The English language does not have definitive hyphenation rules,[9] though various style guides provide detailed usage recommendations and have a significant amount of overlap in what they advise. Hyphens are mostly used to break single words into parts or to join ordinarily separate words into single words. Spaces are not placed between a hyphen and either of the elements it connects except when using a suspended or "hanging" hyphen that stands in for a repeated word (e.g., nineteenth- and twentieth-century writers). Style conventions that apply to hyphens (and dashes) have evolved to support ease of reading in complex constructions; editors often accept deviations if they aid rather than hinder easy comprehension.
The use of the hyphen in English compound nouns and verbs has, in general, been steadily declining. Compounds that might once have been hyphenated are increasingly left with spaces or are combined into one word. Reflecting this changing usage, in 2007, the sixth edition of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary removed the hyphens from 16,000 entries, such as fig-leaf (now fig leaf), pot-belly (now pot belly), and pigeon-hole (now pigeonhole).[10] The increasing prevalence of computer technology and the advent of the Internet have given rise to a subset of common nouns that might have been hyphenated in the past (e.g., toolbar, hyperlink, and pastebin).
Despite decreased use, hyphenation remains the norm in certain compound-modifier constructions and, among some authors, with certain prefixes (see below). Hyphenation is also routinely used as part of syllabification in justified texts to avoid unsightly spacing (especially in columns with narrow line lengths, as when used with newspapers).
Separating
Justification and line-wrapping
When flowing text, it is sometimes preferable to break a word into two so that it continues on another line rather than moving the entire word to the next line. The word may be divided at the nearest break point between syllables (syllabification) and a hyphen inserted to indicate that the letters form a word fragment, rather than a full word. This allows more efficient use of paper, allows flush appearance of right-side margins (justification) without oddly large word spaces, and decreases the problem of rivers. This kind of hyphenation is most useful when the width of the column (called the "line length" in typography) is very narrow. For example:
Justified text without hyphenation |
Justified text with hyphenation | |
We, therefore, the |
We, therefore, the represen- |
Rules (or guidelines) for correct hyphenation vary between languages, and may be complex, and they can interact with other
It may be necessary to distinguish an incidental line-break hyphen from one integral to a word
Prefixes and suffixes
The hyphen may be used between vowel letters (e.g., ee, ea, ei) to indicate that they do not form a digraph. Some words have both hyphenated and unhyphenated variants: de-escalate/deescalate, co-operation/cooperation, re-examine/reexamine, de-emphasize/deemphasize, and so on. Words often lose their hyphen as they become more common, such as email instead of e-mail. When there are tripled letters, the hyphenated variant of these words is often more common (as in shell-like instead of shelllike).
Closed-up style is avoided in some cases: possible
A diaeresis may also be used in a like fashion, either to separate and mark off monographs (as in coöperation) or to signalize a vocalic terminal e (for example, Brontë). This use of the diaeresis peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but it was never applied extensively across the language: only a handful of diaereses, including coöperation and Brontë, are encountered with any appreciable frequency in English; thus reëxamine, reïterate, deëmphasize, etc. are seldom encountered. In borrowings from Modern French, whose orthography utilizes the diaeresis as a means to differentiate graphemes, various English dictionaries list the dieresis as optional (as in naive and naïve) despite the juxtaposition of a and i.[citation needed]
Syllabification and spelling
Hyphens are occasionally used to denote syllabification, as in syl-la-bi-fi-ca-tion. Various British and North American dictionaries use an interpunct, sometimes called a "middle dot" or "hyphenation point", for this purpose, as in syl·la·bi·fi·ca·tion. This allows the hyphen to be reserved only for places where a hard hyphen is intended (for example, self-con·scious, un·self-con·scious, long-stand·ing). Similarly, hyphens may be used to indicate how a word is being or should be spelled. For example, W-O-R-D spells "word".
In nineteenth-century American literature, hyphens were also used irregularly to divide syllables in words from indigenous North American languages, without regard for etymology or pronunciation,[18] such as "Shuh-shuh-gah" (from Ojibwe zhashagi, "blue heron") in The Song of Hiawatha.[19] This usage is now rare and proscribed, except in some place names such as Ah-gwah-ching.
Joining
Compound modifiers
Compound modifiers are groups of two or more words that jointly modify the meaning of another word. When a compound modifier other than an adverb–adjective combination appears before a term, the compound modifier is often hyphenated to prevent misunderstanding, such as in American-football player or little-celebrated paintings. Without the hyphen, there is potential confusion about whether the writer means a "player of American football" or an "American player of football" and whether the writer means paintings that are "little celebrated" or "celebrated paintings" that are little.[20] Compound modifiers can extend to three or more words, as in ice-cream-flavored candy, and can be adverbial as well as adjectival (spine-tinglingly frightening). However, if the compound is a familiar one, it is usually unhyphenated. For example, some style guides prefer the construction high school students, to high-school students.[21][22] Although the expression is technically ambiguous ("students of a high school"/"school students who are high"), it would normally be formulated differently if other than the first meaning were intended. Noun–noun compound modifiers may also be written without a hyphen when no confusion is likely: grade point average and department store manager.[22]
When a compound modifier follows the term to which it applies, a hyphen is typically not used if the compound is a temporary compound. For example, "that gentleman is well respected", not "that gentleman is well-respected"; or "a patient-centered approach was used" but "the approach was patient centered."[23] But permanent compounds, found as headwords in dictionaries, are treated as invariable, so if they are hyphenated in the cited dictionary, the hyphenation will be used in both attributive and predicative positions. For example, "A cost-effective method was used" and "The method was cost-effective" (cost-effective is a permanent compound that is hyphenated as a headword in various dictionaries). When one of the parts of the modifier is a proper noun or a proper adjective, there is no hyphen (e.g., "a South American actor").[24]
When the first modifier in a compound is an adverb ending in -ly (e.g., "a poorly written novel"), various style guides advise no hyphen.[24][additional citation(s) needed] However, some do allow for this use. For example, The Economist Style Guide advises: "Adverbs do not need to be linked to participles or adjectives by hyphens in simple constructions ... Less common adverbs, including all those that end -ly, are less likely to need hyphens."[25] In the 19th century, it was common to hyphenate adverb–adjective modifiers with the adverb ending in -ly (e.g., "a craftily-constructed chair"). However, this has become rare. For example, wholly owned subsidiary and quickly moving vehicle are unambiguous, because the adverbs clearly modify the adjectives: "quickly" cannot modify "vehicle".
However, if an adverb can also function as an adjective, then a hyphen may be or should be used for clarity, depending on the style guide.[17] For example, the phrase more-important reasons ("reasons that are more important") is distinguished from more important reasons ("additional important reasons"), where more is an adjective. Similarly, more-beautiful scenery (with a mass-noun) is distinct from more beautiful scenery. (In contrast, the hyphen in "a more-important reason" is not necessary, because the syntax cannot be misinterpreted.) A few short and common words—such as well, ill, little, and much—attract special attention in this category.[25] The hyphen in "well-[past_participled] noun", such as in "well-differentiated cells", might reasonably be judged superfluous (the syntax is unlikely to be misinterpreted), yet plenty of style guides call for it. Because early has both adverbial and adjectival senses, its hyphenation can attract attention; some editors, due to comparison with advanced-stage disease and adult-onset disease, like the parallelism of early-stage disease and early-onset disease. Similarly, the hyphen in little-celebrated paintings clarifies that one is not speaking of little paintings.
Hyphens are usually used to connect numbers and words in modifying phrases. Such is the case when used to describe dimensional measurements of weight, size, and time, under the rationale that, like other compound modifiers, they take hyphens in attributive position (before the modified noun),
In spelled-out
In English, an
Object–verbal-noun compounds
When an object is compounded with a verbal noun, such as
An example of an ambiguous phrase appears in they stood near a group of alien lovers, which without a hyphen implies that they stood near a group of lovers who were aliens; they stood near a group of alien-lovers clarifies that they stood near a group of people who loved aliens, as "alien" can be either an adjective or a noun. On the other hand, in the phrase a hungry pizza-lover, the hyphen will often be omitted (a hungry pizza lover), as "pizza" cannot be an adjective and the phrase is therefore unambiguous.
Similarly, a man-eating shark is nearly the opposite of a man eating shark; the first refers to a shark that eats people, and the second to a man who eats shark meat. A government-monitoring program is a program that monitors the government, whereas a government monitoring program is a government program that monitors something else.
Personal names
Some married couples compose a new surname (sometimes referred to as a double-barrelled name) for their new family by combining their two surnames with a hyphen. Jane Doe and John Smith might become Jane and John Smith-Doe, or Doe-Smith, for instance. In some countries only the woman hyphenates her birth surname, appending her husband's surname.
With already-hyphenated names, some parts are typically dropped. For example, Aaron Johnson and Samantha Taylor-Wood became Aaron Taylor-Johnson and Sam Taylor-Johnson. Not all hyphenated surnames are the result of marriage. For example Julia Louis-Dreyfus is a descendant of Louis Lemlé Dreyfus whose son was Léopold Louis-Dreyfus.
Other compounds
Connecting hyphens are used in a large number of miscellaneous compounds, other than modifiers, such as in lily-of-the-valley, cock-a-hoop, clever-clever, tittle-tattle and orang-utan. Use is often dictated by convention rather than fixed rules, and hyphenation styles may vary between authors; for example, orang-utan is also written as orangutan or orang utan, and lily-of-the-valley may be hyphenated or not.
Suspended hyphens
A suspended hyphen (also called a suspensive hyphen or hanging hyphen, or less commonly a dangling or floating hyphen) may be used when a single base word is used with separate, consecutive, hyphenated words that are connected by "and", "or", or "to". For example, short-term and long-term plans may be written as short- and long-term plans. This usage is now common and specifically recommended in some style guides.[22] Suspended hyphens are also used, though less commonly, when the base word comes first, such as in "investor-owned and -operated". Uses such as "applied and sociolinguistics" (instead of "applied linguistics and sociolinguistics") are frowned upon; the Indiana University style guide uses this example and says "Do not 'take a shortcut' when the first expression is ordinarily open" (i.e., ordinarily two separate words).[22] This is different, however, from instances where prefixes that are normally closed up (styled solidly) are used suspensively. For example, preoperative and postoperative becomes pre- and postoperative (not pre- and post-operative) when suspended. Some editors prefer to avoid suspending such pairs, choosing instead to write out both words in full.[26]
Other uses
A hyphen may be used to connect groups of numbers, such as in dates (see § Usage in date notation), telephone numbers or sports scores.
It can also be used to indicate a range of values, although many styles prefer an en dash (see Dash § En dash §§ Ranges of values).
It is sometimes used to hide letters in words (
It is often used in reduplication.[31]
Due to their similar appearances, hyphens are sometimes mistakenly used where an en dash or em dash would be more appropriate.[32]
Varied meanings
Some stark examples of semantic changes caused by the placement of hyphens to mark attributive phrases:
- Disease-causing poor nutrition is poor nutrition that causes disease.
- Disease causing poor nutrition is a disease that causes poor nutrition.
- A hard-working man is a man who works hard.
- A hard working man is a working man who is tough.
- A man-eating shark is a shark that eats humans.
- A man eating shark is a man who is eating shark meat.
- Three-hundred-year-old trees are an indeterminate number of trees that are each 300 years old.
- Three hundred-year-old trees are three trees that are each 100 years old.
- Three hundred year-old trees are 300 trees that are each a year old.
Use in computing
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2020) |
Hyphen-minuses
In the
The hyphen-minus has limited use in indicating subtraction; for example, compare 4+3−2=5 (minus) and 4+3-2=5 (hyphen-minus) — in most typefaces, the glyph for hyphen-minus will not have the optimal width, thickness, or vertical position, whereas the minus character is typically designed so that it does. Nevertheless, in many spreadsheet and programming applications the hyphen-minus must be typed to indicate subtraction, as use of the Unicode minus sign will not be recognised.
The hyphen-minus is often used instead of dashes or minus signs in situations where the latter characters are unavailable (such as
--
or ---
) to represent an em dash.[35]-
) renders a hyphen, a single hyphen-minus in math mode ($-$
) renders a minus sign, two hyphen-minuses (--
) renders an en dash, and three hyphen-minuses (---
) renders an em dash.
The hyphen-minus character is also often used when specifying
--
, to specify long option names that are more descriptive than their single-letter equivalents. Another use of hyphens is that employed by programs written with pipelining in mind: a single hyphen may be recognized in lieu of a filename, with the hyphen then serving as an indicator that a standard streamSoft and hard hyphens
Although software (
Soft hyphens are inserted into the text at the positions where hyphenation may occur. It can be a tedious task to insert the soft hyphens by hand, and tools using hyphenation algorithms are available that do this automatically. Current modules[
Some (OpenType) fonts will change the character at the end of a word. An example is a font that places a long s, 'ſ ', everywhere except at the end of a word,[clarification needed] where a round s, 's', is used. A soft hyphen can be used to change the previous letter to a round s in the middle of a word. For example, 'prinſeſſen' can be corrected by inserting a soft hyphen between the 'ſ 's: 'prinſeſ-ſen' becomes 'prinſesſen' (which is correct in Norwegian).
In contrast, a hyphen that is always displayed and printed is called a "hard hyphen". This can be a Unicode hyphen, a hyphen-minus, or a nonbreaking hyphen (see below). Confusingly, the term is sometimes limited to nonbreaking hyphens.[citation needed]
Nonbreaking hyphens
The non-breaking hyphen, nonbreaking hyphen, or no-break hyphen looks identical to the regular hyphen, but word processors treat it as a letter so that the hyphenated word will not be divided at the hyphen should this fall at what would be the end of a line of text; instead, either the whole hyphenated word will remain in full at the end of the line or it will go in full to the beginning of the next line. The
The
"Unicode hyphen"
Because the conventional hyphen-minus mark on keyboards is ambiguous (it can be interpreted – sometimes unexpectedly – as a hyphen or a minus, depending on context), in addition the
Use in date notation
Use of hyphens to delineate the parts of a written date (rather than the
This method has gained influence within North America, as most common computer
/
to introduce and separate switches to shell commands, and on both Windows and Unix-likeUnicode
Unicode has multiple hyphen characters:[37]
- U+002D - HYPHEN-MINUS, a character of multiple uses
- U+00AD SOFT HYPHEN (HTML
­
)[b] - U+2010 ‐ HYPHEN (HTML
‐
or‐
) - U+2011 ‑ NON-BREAKING HYPHEN
- U+2E5D ⹝ OBLIQUE HYPHEN for medieval texts[38]
And in non-Latin scripts:[37]
- U+058A ֊ ARMENIAN HYPHEN
- U+05BE ־ HEBREW PUNCTUATION MAQAF
- U+1806 ᠆ MONGOLIAN TODO SOFT HYPHEN
- U+1B60 ᭠ BALINESE PAMENENG (used only as a line-breaking hyphen)
- U+2E17 ⸗ DOUBLE OBLIQUE HYPHEN (used in ancient Near-Eastern linguistics and in blackletter typefaces)
- U+30FB ・ KATAKANA MIDDLE DOT (has the Unicode property of "Hyphen" despite its name)
- U+FE63 ﹣ SMALL HYPHEN-MINUS (compatibility character for a small hyphen-minus, used in East Asian typography)
- U+FF0D - FULLWIDTH HYPHEN-MINUS (compatibility character for a wide hyphen-minus, used in East Asian typography)
- U+FF65 ・ HALFWIDTH KATAKANA MIDDLE DOT (compatibility character for a wide katakana middle dot, has the Unicode property of "Hyphen" despite its name)
Unicode distinguishes the hyphen from the general interpunct. The characters below do not have the Unicode property of "Hyphen" despite their names:[37]
- U+1400 ᐀ CANADIAN SYLLABICS HYPHEN
- U+2027 ‧ HYPHENATION POINT
- U+2043 ⁃ HYPHEN BULLET (HTML
⁃
) - U+2E1A ⸚ HYPHEN WITH DIAERESIS
- U+2E40 ⹀ DOUBLE HYPHEN
- U+30A0 ゠ KATAKANA-HIRAGANA DOUBLE HYPHEN
- U+10EAD 𐺭 YEZIDI HYPHENATION MARK
(See interpunct and bullet (typography) for more round characters.)
See also
- Double hyphen
- French orthography § Hyphens
- Hyphen War, dispute over the naming of Czechoslovakia after the 1989 split
- Papyrological hyphen: equivalent in pre-modern Greek
- Enhypen – South Korean boy band whose name derives from the hyphen symbol
Notes
- ^ a b With numbers, where a plural noun would normally be used in an unhyphenated predicative position, the singular form of the noun is generally used in the hyphenated form used attributively. Thus a woman who is 28 years old becomes a 28-year-old woman. There are occasional exceptions to this general rule, for instance with fractions (a two-thirds majority) and irregular plurals (a two-criteria review, a two-teeth bridge).
- ^ The Soft hyphen serves as an invisible marker used to specify a place in text where a hyphenated break is allowed without forcing a line break in an inconvenient place if the text is reflowed. It becomes visible only after word wrapping at the end of a line.
References
- ^ "Hyphen Definition". dictionary.com. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
- ^ "American National Standard X3.4-1977: American Standard Code for Information Interchange" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 10 (4.2 Graphic characters).
- Perseus Project.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "hyphen". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ Nicolas, Nick. "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation Archived 6 August 2012 at archive.today". 2005. Accessed 7 October 2014.
- ^ Ελληνικός Οργανισμός Τυποποίησης [Ellīnikós Organismós Typopoíīsīs, "Hellenic Organization for Standardization"]. ΕΛΟΤ 743, 2η Έκδοση [ELOT 743, 2ī Ekdosī, "ELOT 743, 2nd ed."]. ELOT (Athens), 2001. (in Greek)
- ISBN 978-0-393-06442-1.
- ISBN 978-0-393-06442-1.
- ^ Wroe, Ann, ed. (2015). The Economist Style Guide (11th ed.). London / New York: Profile Books / PublicAffairs. p. 74.
hyphens There is no firm rule to help you decide which words are run together, hyphenated or left separate.
- British Broadcasting Corporation. 20 September 2007..
- ISBN 978-0-87779-201-7. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
- ISBN 978-8186062258. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-7818-0846-0. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
- ISBN 978-9027245236.
- ^ A fairly comprehensive list, although not exhaustive, is given at Prefix > List of English derivational prefixes.
- ^ "Hyphenated Words: A Guide", The Grammar Curmudgeon, City slide.
- ^ a b "Hyphens", Punctuation, Grammar book.
- ^ Liberman, Mark. "American Indian Hyphens". Language Log.
- ^ Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. The Song of Hiawatha.
- ISBN 0020130856
- ^ E.g. "H". Bloomberg School Style Manual. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
- ^ a b c d E.g. "H". The IU editorial style guide. Indiana University. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
- ^ Davis, John (30 November 2004). "Using Hyphens in Compound Adjectives (and Exceptions to the Rule)" (Grammar tip). UHV. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
- ^ a b "Hyphenated Compound Words". englishplus.com. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
- ^ a b Wroe, Ann, ed. (2015). The Economist Style Guide (11th ed.). London / New York: Profile Books / PublicAffairs. pp. 77–78.
hyphens ... 12. Adverbs: Adverbs do not need to be linked to participles or adjectives by hyphens in simple constructions [examples elided]. But if the adverb is one of two words together being used adjectivally, a hyphen may be needed [examples elided]. The hyphen is especially likely to be needed if the adverb is short and common, such as ill, little, much and well. Less common adverbs, including all those that end -ly, are less likely to need hyphens [example elided].
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-517633-9.
- ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0, sub§5.4.3, p. 149; "Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI)", NIST Special Publication 811, National Institute of Standards and Technology, March 2008.
- ISBN 978-1-4338-0562-2.
- ISBN 978-1-58297-335-7.
- ^ Davidson, Baruch (23 February 2011). "Why Don't Jews Say G‑d's Name? - On the use of the word "Hashem" - Chabad.org". Chabad.org. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
It is customary to insert a dash in G-d's name when written or printed on a medium that could be defaced.
- ^ "Like vs. Like-Like: A Look at Reduplication in English". Dictionary.com. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
- ^ Gunner, Jennifer (22 February 2010). "When and How To Use a Hyphen ( - )". grammar.yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
Many people confuse hyphens and dashes because they look similar in printing.
- ISBN 978-0596102425.
- ^ "3.1 General scripts" (PDF). Unicode Version 1.0 · Character Blocks. p. 30.
Loose vs. Precise Semantics. Some ASCII characters have multiple uses, either through ambiguity in the original standards or through accumulated reinterpretations of a limited codeset. For example, 27 hex is defined in ANSI X3.4 as apostrophe (closing single quotation mark; acute accent), and 2D hex as hyphen minus.
- ISBN 978-0-88179-206-5. Retrieved 10 November 2020.
In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.
- ^ Korpela, Jukka K. (December 2020). "Dashes and hyphens". IT and Communication.
- ^ a b c "Unicode 15.1 UCD: PropList.txt". 1 August 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
- ^ Everson, Michael (12 January 2021). "L2/21-036 Proposal to add the OBLIQUE HYPHEN" (PDF). Retrieved 19 September 2022.
External links
- Wiktionary list of English phrases spelled with a hyphen
- Economist Style Guide—Hyphens
- Using hyphens in English; rules and recommendations
- Jukka Korpela, Soft hyphen (SHY)—a hard problem? (See also his article on word breaking, line breaks, and special characters (including hyphens) in HTML.)
- Markus Kuhn, Unicode interpretation of SOFT HYPHEN breaks ISO 8859-1 compatibility. Unicode Technical Committee document L2/03-155R, June 2003.
- United States Government Printing Office Style Manual 2000 6. Compounding Rules]