Ian Kershaw
Sir Ian Kershaw DPhil) | |
---|---|
Thesis | Bolton Priory, 1286–1325: An Economic Study (1969) |
Influences | |
Academic work | |
Discipline | Social history |
School or tradition | Alltagsgeschichte |
Main interests | Nazi Germany |
Notable ideas | "Working Towards the Führer" theory |
Sir Ian Kershaw
He was a follower of the German historian Martin Broszat, and until his retirement, he was a professor at the University of Sheffield. Kershaw has called Broszat an "inspirational mentor" who did much to shape his understanding of Nazi Germany.[2] Kershaw served as historical adviser on numerous BBC documentaries, notably The Nazis: A Warning from History and War of the Century. He taught a module titled "Germans against Hitler".[3]
Background
Ian Kershaw was born on 29 April 1943 in
His wife, Dame Betty Kershaw, is a former professor of nursing and dean of the School of Nursing Studies at the University of Sheffield.[8]
Bavaria Project
In 1975, Kershaw joined
Also arising from the "Bavaria Project" and Kershaw's work in the field of Alltagsgeschichte ('everyday history') was Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich. In this 1983 book, Kershaw examined the experience of the Nazi era at the grass-roots in Bavaria. Kershaw showed how ordinary people reacted to the Nazi dictatorship, looking at how people conformed to the regime and to the extent and limits of dissent. Kershaw described his subject as ordinary Bavarians:
the muddled majority, neither full-hearted Nazis nor outright opponents, whose attitudes at one and the same time betray signs of Nazi ideological penetration and yet show the clear limits of propaganda manipulation.[9]
Kershaw went on to write in his preface:
I should like to think that had I been around at the time I would have been a convinced anti-Nazi engaged in the underground resistance fight. However, I know really that I would have been as confused and felt as helpless as most of the people I am writing about.[10]
Kershaw argued that Goebbels failed to create the
Kershaw found that the majority of Bavarians disapproved of the violence of the Kristallnacht pogrom, and that despite the efforts of the Nazis, continued to maintain social relations with members of the Bavarian Jewish community.[13] Kershaw documented numerous campaigns on the part of the Nazi Party to increase antisemitic hatred, and noted that the overwhelming majority of antisemitic activities in Bavaria were the work of a small number of committed Nazi Party members.[13] Overall, Kershaw noted that the popular mood towards Jews was indifference to their fate.[13] Kershaw argued that during World War II, most Bavarians were vaguely aware of the Holocaust, but were vastly more concerned about and interested in the war than about the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question",[13] making the notable claim that "the road to Auschwitz was built by hate, but paved with indifference."[14][15]
Kershaw's assessment that most Bavarians, and by implication Germans, were "indifferent" to the Shoah faced criticism from the Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka and the Canadian historian Michael Kater. Kater contended that Kershaw downplayed the extent of popular antisemitism, and that though admitting that most of the "spontaneous" antisemitic actions of Nazi Germany were staged, argued that because these actions involved substantial numbers of Germans, it is wrong to see the extreme antisemitism of the Nazis as coming solely from above.[16]
Kulka argued that most Germans were more antisemitic than Kershaw portrayed them in Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich, and that rather than "indifference" "passive complicity" would be a better term to describe the reaction of the German people to the Shoah.[17]
The Nazi Dictatorship
In 1985, Kershaw published a book on the historiography of Nazi Germany, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, in which he reflected on the problems in historiography of the Nazi era.[18] Kershaw noted the huge disparity of often incompatible views about the Nazi era such as the debate between:
- those who see the Nazi period as the culmination of Deutschtum (Germanism) and Marxists who see Nazism as the culmination of capitalism
- those who argue for a Sonderweg (distinct path of German post-medieval development), and those who argue against the Sonderweg concept
- those who see Nazism as a type of totalitarianism, and those who see it as a type of fascism
- those historians who favour a "functionalist" interpretation with the emphasis on the German bureaucracy and the Holocaust as an ad hoc process, and those who favour an "intentionalist" interpretation with the focus on Hitler and the argument that the Holocaust had been something planned from early on in Hitler's political career.[19]
As Kershaw noted, these divergent interpretations such as the differences between the functionalist view of the Holocaust as caused by a process and the intentionalist view of the Holocaust as caused by a plan are not easily reconciled, and that there was in his opinion the need for a guide to explain the complex historiography surrounding these issues.[19]
Likewise, if one accepts the Marxist view of Nazism as the culmination of capitalism, then the Nazi phenomenon is universal, and fascism can come to power in any society where capitalism is the dominant economic system, whereas the view of Nazism as the culmination of Deutschtum means that the Nazi phenomenon is local and particular only to Germany. For Kershaw, any historian writing about the period had to take account of the "historical-philosophical", "political-ideological" and moral problems associated with the period, which thus poses special challenges for the historian. In The Nazi Dictatorship, Kershaw surveyed the historical literature and offered his own assessment of the pros and cons of the various approaches.[18] For example, in the 2015 edition of The Nazi Dictatorship, Kershaw, although he acknowledged plausible objections to the application of a common "totalitarianism" paradigm to both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, agreed with those who have generally made these criticisms "that it is in itself a wholly legitimate exercise, whatever essential differences existed in ideology and socio-economic structures, to compare the forms and techniques of rule in Germany under Hitler and the Soviet Union under Stalin."[20]
In a 2008 interview, Kershaw lists as his major intellectual influences Martin Broszat, Hans Mommsen, Alan Milward, Timothy Mason, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, William Carr, and Jeremy Noakes.[21] In the same interview, Kershaw expressed strong approval of Mason's "Primacy of Politics" concept, in which it was German Big Business that served the Nazi regime rather than the other way around, against the orthodox Marxist "Primacy of Economics" concept.[21] Despite his praise and admiration for Mason, in the 2000 edition of The Nazi Dictatorship, Kershaw was highly skeptical of Mason's "Flight into War" theory of an economic crisis in 1939 forcing the Nazi regime into war.[22]
In the
Kershaw was later in a 2003 essay to criticise both Ritter and Meinecke, stating that by their promotion of the Betriebsunfall theory or by blaming everything upon Hitler, they were seeking to white-wash the German past.[2] Writing of the work of the German historian Rainer Zitelmann, Kershaw has argued that Zitelmann has elevated what were merely secondary considerations in Hitler's remarks to the primary level, and that Zitelmann has not offered a clear definition of what he means by "modernization".[26]
With regard to the Nazi foreign policy debate between "globalists" such as Klaus Hildebrand, Andreas Hillgruber, Jochen Thies, Gunter Moltman and Gerhard Weinberg, who argue that Germany aimed at world conquest, and the "continentalists" such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, Eberhard Jäckel and Axel Kuhn, who argue that Germany aimed only at the conquest of Europe,[27] Kershaw tends towards the "continental" position.[28] Kershaw agrees with the thesis that Hitler did formulate a programme for foreign policy centering on an alliance with Britain to achieve the destruction of the Soviet Union, but has argued that a British lack of interest doomed the project, thus leading to the situation in 1939, where Hitler went to war with Britain, the country he wanted as an ally, not as an enemy, and the country he wanted as an enemy, the Soviet Union, as his ally.[29] At the same time, Kershaw sees considerable merit in the work of such historians as Timothy Mason, Hans Mommsen, Martin Broszat and Wolfgang Schieder, who argue that Hitler had no "programme" in foreign policy, and instead contend that his foreign policy was simply a kneejerk reaction to domestic pressures in the economy and his need to maintain his popularity.[30]
Regarding the historical debates about Widerstand (resistance) in German society, Kershaw has argued that there are two approaches to the question, one of which he calls the fundamentalist (dealing with those committed to overthrowing the Nazi regime) and the other the societal (dealing with forms of dissent in "everyday life").[31] In Kershaw's view, Broszat's Resistenz (immunity) concept works well in an Alltagsgeschichte approach, but works less well in the field of high politics, and moreover by focusing only on the "effect" of one's actions, fails to consider the crucial element of the "intention" behind one's actions.[32] Kershaw has argued that the term Widerstand should be used only for those working for the total overthrow of the Nazi system, and those engaging in behaviour that was counter to the regime's wishes without seeking to overthrow the regime should be included under the terms opposition and dissent, depending upon their motives and actions.[33] In Kershaw's opinion, there were three bands ranging from dissent to opposition to resistance.[34] Kershaw has used the Edelweiss Pirates as an example of a group whose behavior initially fell under dissent, and who advanced from there to opposition and finally to resistance.[35]
In Kershaw's view, there was much dissent and opposition within German society, but outside of the working class, very little resistance.[36] Although Kershaw has argued that the Resistenz (immunity [against indoctrination]) concept has much merit, he concluded that the Nazi regime had a broad basis of support and it is correct to speak of "resistance without the people".[37]
Regarding the debate in the late 1980s between Martin Broszat and Saul Friedländer over Broszat's call for the "historicization" of Nazism, Kershaw wrote that he agreed with Friedländer that the Nazi period could not be treated as a "normal" period of history, but he felt that historians should approach the Nazi period as they would any other period of history.[38] In support of Broszat, Kershaw wrote that an Alltagsgeschichte approach to German history, provided that it did not lose sight of Nazi crimes, had much to offer as a way of understanding how those crimes occurred.[38]
During the "Goldhagen Controversy" of 1996, Kershaw took the view that his friend, Hans Mommsen, had "destroyed" Daniel Goldhagen's arguments about a culture of "eliminationist antisemitism" in Germany during their frequent debates on German TV.[39] Kershaw wrote that he agreed with Eberhard Jäckel's assessment that Hitler's Willing Executioners was "simply a bad book".[40] Though Kershaw had little positive to say about Goldhagen, he wrote that he felt that Norman Finkelstein's attack on Goldhagen had been over-the-top and did little to help historical understanding.[41] However, Kershaw later went on to recommend Norman Finkelstein and Ruth Bettina Birn's extremely critical assessment of Goldhagen's book, A Nation on Trial: The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth; stating that "Finkelstein and Birn provide a devastating critique of Daniel Goldhagen's simplistic and misleading interpretation of the Holocaust. Their contribution to the debate is, in my view, indispensable."[citation needed]
Structuralist views
Like Broszat, Kershaw sees the structures of the Nazi state as far more important than the personality of Hitler (or any other individual for that matter) as an explanation for the way
For Kershaw, the real significance of Hitler lies not in the dictator himself, but rather in the German people's perception of him.[44] In his biography of Hitler, Kershaw presented him as the ultimate "unperson"; a boring, pedestrian man devoid of even the "negative greatness" attributed to him by Joachim Fest.[45] Kershaw rejects the great man theory of history and has criticised those who seek to explain everything that happened in Nazi Germany as the result of Hitler's will and intentions.[46] Kershaw has argued that it is absurd to seek to explain German history in the Nazi era solely through Hitler, as Germany had sixty-eight million people during the Nazi era, and to seek to explain the fate of sixty-eight million people solely through the prism of one man is in Kershaw's opinion a flawed position.[47]
Kershaw wrote about the problems of an excessive focus on Hitler that "even the best biographies have seemed at times in danger of elevating Hitler's personal power to a level where the history of Germany between 1933 and 1945 becomes reduced to little more than an expression of the dictator's will".[47] Kershaw has a low opinion of those who seek to provide "personalized" theories about the Holocaust and/or World War II as due to some defect, medical or otherwise, in Hitler.[48] In his 2000 edition of The Nazi Dictatorship, Kershaw quoted with approval the dismissive remarks made by the German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler in 1980 about such theories. Wehler wrote:
Does our understanding of National Socialist policies really depend on whether Hitler had only one testicle? ... Perhaps the Führer had three, which made things difficult for him, who knows? ... Even if Hitler could be regarded irrefutably as a sadomasochist, which scientific interest does that further? ... Does the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" thus become more easily understandable or the "twisted road to Auschwitz" become the one-way street of a psychopath in power?[48]
Kershaw shares Wehler's opinion, that, besides the problem that such theories about Hitler's medical condition were extremely difficult to prove, they had the effect of personalising the phenomena of Nazi Germany by more or less attributing everything that happened in Nazi Germany to one flawed individual.[48]
Kershaw's biography of Hitler is an examination of Hitler's power; how he obtained it and how he maintained it.
Functionalism–intentionalism debate
In the
Despite his background in the functionalist historiography, Kershaw admits that his account of Hitler in World War II owes much to intentionalist historians like Gerhard Weinberg, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Lucy Dawidowicz and Eberhard Jäckel.[18] Kershaw accepts the picture of Hitler drawn by intentionalist historians as a fanatical ideologue who was obsessed with social Darwinism, völkisch antisemitism (in which the Jewish people were viewed as a "race" biologically different from the rest of humanity rather than a religion), militarism and the perceived need for Lebensraum.[18]
However, in a 1992 essay, "Improvised genocide?", in which Kershaw traces how the ethnic cleansing campaign of Gauleiter
"Working Towards the Führer" concept
Kershaw disagrees with Mommsen's "Weak Dictator" thesis: the idea that Hitler was a relatively unimportant player in Nazi Germany. However, he has agreed with his idea that Hitler did not play much of a role in the day-to-day administration of the government of Nazi Germany. Kershaw's way of explaining this paradox is his theory of "Working Towards the Führer", the phrase being taken from a 1934 speech by the Prussian civil servant Werner Willikens:[57]
Everyone who has the opportunity to observe it knows that the Fuhrer can hardly dictate from above everything which he intends to realize sooner or later. On the contrary, up till now, everyone with a post in the new Germany has worked best when he has, so to speak, worked towards the Fuhrer. Very often and in many spheres, it has been the case—in previous years as well—that individuals have simply waited for orders and instructions. Unfortunately, the same will be true in the future; but in fact, it is the duty of everybody to try to work towards the Fuhrer along the lines he would wish. Anyone who makes mistakes will notice it soon enough. But anyone who really works towards the Fuhrer along his lines and towards his goal will certainly both now and in the future, one day have the finest reward in the form of the sudden legal confirmation of his work.[58]
Kershaw has argued that in Nazi Germany officials of both the German state and Party bureaucracy usually took the initiative in initiating policy to meet Hitler's perceived wishes, or alternatively attempted to turn into policy Hitler's often loosely and indistinctly phrased wishes.[57] Though Kershaw does agree that Hitler possessed the powers that the "Master of the Third Reich" thesis championed by Norman Rich and Karl Dietrich Bracher would suggest, he has argued that Hitler was a "lazy dictator", an indifferent dictator who was really not interested in involving himself much in the daily running of Nazi Germany.[59] The only exceptions were the areas of foreign policy and military decisions, both areas that Hitler increasingly involved himself in from the late 1930s.[59]
In a 1993 essay "Working Towards the Führer", Kershaw argued that the German and Soviet dictatorships had more differences than similarities.[24] Kershaw argued that Hitler was a very unbureaucratic leader who was highly averse to paperwork, in marked contrast to Joseph Stalin.[24] Likewise, Kershaw argued that Stalin was highly involved in the running of the Soviet Union, in contrast to Hitler whose involvement in day-to-day decision making was limited, infrequent and capricious.[60] Kershaw argued that the Soviet regime, despite all of its extreme brutality and utter ruthlessness, was basically rational in its goal of seeking to modernise a backward country and had no equivalent of the "cumulative radicalization" towards increasingly irrational goals that Kershaw sees as characteristic of Nazi Germany.[61] In Kershaw's opinion, Stalin's power corresponded to Weber's category of bureaucratic authority, whereas Hitler's power corresponded to Weber's category of charismatic authority.[62]
In Kershaw's view, what happened in Germany after 1933 was the imposition of Hitler's charismatic authority on top of the "
As an example of how Hitler's power functioned in practice, Kershaw used Hitler's directive to the Gauleiters Albert Forster and Arthur Greiser to "Germanize" the part of north-western Poland annexed to Germany in 1939 within the next 10 years with his promise that "no questions would be asked" about how this would be done.[66][67] As Kershaw notes, the completely different ways Forster and Greiser sought to "Germanize" their Gaue – with Forster simply having the local Polish population in his Gau signing forms saying they had "German blood", and Greiser carrying out a program of brutal ethnic cleansing of Poles in his Gau – showed both how Hitler set events in motion, and how his Gauleiters could carry out totally different policies in pursuit of what they believed to be Hitler's wishes.[66][67] In Kershaw's opinion, Hitler's vision of a racially cleansed Volksgemeinschaft provided the impetus for German officials to carry out increasingly extreme measures to win his approval, which ended with the Holocaust.[68]
The Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka has praised the concept of "working towards the Führer" as the best way of understanding how the Holocaust occurred, combining the best features and avoiding the weaknesses of both the "functionalist" and "intentionalist" methods.[69]
Thus, for Kershaw, Hitler held absolute power in Nazi Germany due to the "erosion of collective government in Germany", but his power over domestic politics became more challenging to exercise due to his preoccupation with military affairs, and the rival fiefdoms of the Nazi state fought each other and attempted to carry out Hitler's vaguely worded wishes and dimly defined orders by "Working Towards the Führer".[70]
Later career
Kershaw retired from full-time teaching in 2008.[71] In the 2010s, he wrote two books on the wider history of Europe for The Penguin History of Europe series: To Hell and Back: Europe, 1914–1949 and The Global Age: Europe, 1950–2017.
Honours and memberships
- Fellow of the British Academy
- Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1994[72]
- Winner of the Wolfson History Prize, 2000, for Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis (Allen Lane)
- Co-winner of the British Academy Book Prize, 2001[73]
- Fellow of the Royal Historical Society
- Member of the Historical Association
- Fellow of the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin[74]
- 2002, appointed Knight Bachelor in the 2002 Birthday Honours for services to History[75]
- 2004, a collection of scholarly essays in Honour of Sir Ian Kershaw was published.[76]
- 2005, Elizabeth Longford Prize for Historical Biographyfor Making Friends with Hitler: Lord Londonderry, the Nazis and the Road to War
- 2012, Leipzig Book Award for European Understanding (together with Timothy D. Snyder)[77]
- 2018, Charlemagne Medal[78]
Works
- Bolton Priory Rentals and Ministers; Accounts, 1473–1539 (ed.) (Leeds, 1969)
- Bolton Priory. The Economy of a Northern Monastery (Oxford, 1973)
- 'The Great Famine and agrarian crisis in England 1315-22' in Past & Present, 59 (1973)
- "The Persecution of the Jews and German Popular Opinion in the Third Reich" pp. 261–289 from Yearbook of the Leo Baeck Institute, Volume 26, 1981
- Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich. Bavaria, 1933–45 (Oxford, 1983, rev. 2002), ISBN 0-19-821922-9
- The Nazi Dictatorship. Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (London, 1985, 4th ed., 2000),
- ISBN 0-19-280206-2 online
- Weimar. Why did German Democracy Fail? (ed.) (London, 1990), ISBN 0-312-04470-4
- Hitler: A Profile in Power (London, 1991, rev. 2001)
- "'Improvised genocide?' The Emergence of the 'Final Solution' in the 'Wargenthau" pp. 51–78 from Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Volume 2, December 1992
- "Working Towards the Führer: Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship", pp. 103–118 from ISBN 0-631-20700-7
- Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (ed. with ISBN 0-521-56521-9
- The Bolton Priory Compotus 1286–1325 (ed. with David M. Smith) (London, 2001)
- Making Friends with Hitler: Lord Londonderry and the British Road to War (London, 2004), ISBN 0-7139-9717-6
- "Europe's Second Thirty Years War" pp. 10–17 from History Today, Volume 55, Issue # 9, September 2005
- Death in the Bunker (Penguin Books, 2005), ISBN 978-0141022314
- Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 (London, 2007),
- Hitler, the Germans and the Final Solution (Yale, 2008), ISBN 0-300-12427-9
- ISBN 1-84614-069-2
- Luck of the Devil The Story of Operation Valkyrie (London: Penguin Books, 2009. Published for the first time as a separate book, Luck of the Devil is taken from Ian Kershaw's bestselling Hitler 1936-1945: Nemesis), ISBN 0-14-104006-8
- ISBN 0-7139-9716-8
- ISBN 978-0713990898
- Roller-Coaster: Europe, 1950–2017 (Allen Lane, 2018),
- Personality and Power: Builders and Destroyers of Modern Europe (Penguin Press, 2022)
Notes
- ^ Apparently, Kershaw himself misspelled this as Morgenthau.
References
- ^ Sir Ian Kershaw: Dissecting Hitler Archived 30 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine; BBC News; 14 June 2002.
- ^ a b c Kershaw, Ian (February 2004). "Beware the Moral High Ground". H-Soz-u-Kult. Archived from the original on 29 May 2004. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- ^ Arana, Marie (19 October 2008). "Ian Kershaw: Casting light on the shadows". The Washington Post Book World. p. 11.
- ISBN 0-9711966-2-1.
- ^ See Contemporary Authors, Vol. 137, p. 246f.
- ^ "Ian Kershaw: 'My inspiration' Archived 19 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, theguardian.com; retrieved 21 January 2015.
- ^ a b c Snowman, Daniel "Ian Kershaw" pp. 18–20 from History Today Volume 51, Issue 7, July 2001 p. 18
- ^ "Hitler 1889-1936 by Ian Kershaw". Baillie Gifford Prize. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
- ISBN 0874514258
- ISBN 0874514258
- ISBN 0874514258
- ^ ISBN 0874514258
- ^ a b c d Marrus, Michael. The Holocaust in History, Toronto: KeyPorter, 2000, p. 90.
- ^ Evans, Richard In Hitler's Shadow, New York: Pantheon, 1989 p. 71
- ^ Marrus, Michael The Holocaust in History, Toronto: KeyPorter, 2000, p. 91.
- ^ Marrus, Michael. The Holocaust in History, Toronto: KeyPorter, 2000, p. 92.
- ^ Marrus, Michael The Holocaust in History, Toronto: KeyPorter, 2000 p. 93.
- ^ a b c d e f g Snowman, Daniel. "Ian Kershaw", pp. 18–20, from History Today Volume 51, Issue 7, July 2001, p. 19
- ^ a b Snowman, Daniel "Ian Kershaw", pp. 18–20, from History Today Volume 51, Issue 7, July 2001, pp. 18–19
- ^ Kershaw, Ian (2015). The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (5th ed.). London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic (Bloomsbury Publishing Plc). pp. 43, 42–43.
- ^ a b "Interview with Ian Kershaw". The Institute of Historical Research. 14 May 2008. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2009.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems & Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 88–89
- ^ Kerhsaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b c Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999, p. 234
- ^ a b Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000 pp. 7–8
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, pp. 246–247
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems & Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000 pp. 134–137
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems & Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 154–159
- ^ Roman, Thomas (24 October 2002). "Interview with Ian Kershaw". Eurozine. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems & Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 137–139
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, p. 198
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000 pp. 198–199
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, pp. 206–207.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000 p. 207.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, p. 204.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, pp. 207–216.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, pp. 215–217.
- ^ a b Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 235
- ^ Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000 p. 254
- ^ Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 255
- ^ Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 258
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000 p. 58
- ^ Kerhsaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, p. 61
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998 pp. xii–xiii
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998, pp. xxiii–xxv
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998, p. xx
- ^ a b Lukacs, John The Hitler of History, New York: Vintage Books, 1997, 1998 p. 32
- ^ a b c Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold 2000 p. 72.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998 p. xxvi
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998 p. xiii
- ^ Snowman, Daniel "Ian Kershaw" pp. 18–20 from History Today Volume 51, Issue 7, July 2001 pp. 19–20
- ^ a b "Europe's Second Thirty Years War" pp. 10–17 from History Today, Volume 55, Issue # 9, September 2005
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998 pp. 530–531
- ^ "'Improvised genocide?' The Emergence of the 'Final Solution' in the 'Morgenthau" pp. 51–78 from Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Volume 2, December 1992
- ^ Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1936-1945: Nemesis, New York: W. W. Norton, 2001 p. 927
- ^ Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship London: Edward Arnold 2000 p. 97
- ^ a b Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998 pp. 529–531
- ^ Werner Willikens quoted in Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer.' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship."—Contemporary European History (1993): 103–118.
- ^ a b Kershaw, Ian Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris, W. W. Norton, New York, 1998 pp. 531–533
- ^ Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 pp. 235–236
- ^ Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 p. 240
- ^ Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 p. 243
- ^ Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 p. 244
- ^ Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 p. 245
- ^ a b Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 p. 246
- ^ a b Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 p. 248
- ^ a b Rees, Laurence The Nazis: A Warning From History, New York: New Press, 1997 pp. 141–142
- ^ Kershaw, Ian "'Working Towards the Führer' Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship" pp. 231–252 from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwill, 1999 pp. 246–247
- ^ Kulka, Otto Dov (February 2000). "The Role of Hitler in the 'Final Solution'". Yad Vashem. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-393-32252-1.
- ^ "A life in writing: Ian Kershaw". The Guardian. 11 August 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
- ^ Livingstone, Helen (29 April 2013). "70. Geburtstag des Historikers – Ian Kershaw bleibt bei Europas Zukunft skeptisch". Stern (in German). Archived from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ "British Academy: The British Academy Book Prize – Result of the 2001 Competition". Britac.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 20 June 2007. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
- ^ "Professor Sir Ian Kershaw, B.A. (Liv.), D.Phil. (Oxon.), F.B.A." Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
- ^ "No. 56595". The London Gazette (Supplement). 15 June 2002. p. 1.
- ISBN 0-7190-6732-4
- ^ "Leipzig Book Award for European Understanding". City of Leipzig. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
- ^ "Sir Ian Kershaw (2018)". Retrieved 18 October 2022.
Further reading
- Kershaw, Ian Working Towards the Führer: Essays in Honour of Sir Ian Kershaw, edited by Anthony McElligott and Tim Kirk, Manchester University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-7190-6732-4.
- Kershaw, Ian (19 October 2008). "The writing life: sometimes history just depends on that next cup of coffee". The Washington Post Book World. p. 11.
- ISBN 0-375-70113-3.
- ISBN 0-88619-155-6.
- Pozzi, Enrico. "Può suicidarsi una nazione? Ian Kershaw sugli ultimi 10 mesi della Germania nazista" (extended review of The End), Il Corpo, January 2012, Suicidio finale della Germania di Hitler: luglio '44 - maggio '45 | IL CORPO | Rivista in Progress Archived 28 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- Snowman, Daniel "Ian Kershaw" pp. 18–20 from History Today Volume 51, Issue 7, July 2001.
External links
On Kershaw
- "Ian Kershaw's website at the University of Sheffield". Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
- The Road to Destruction, Richard Gott on Hitler: Nemesis
- Sir Ian Kershaw: Dissecting Hitler
- Review of Hitler, 1889–1936: Hubris
- Review of Making Friends With Hitler Lord Londonderry and Britain's Road to War
- Avner Shapira (27 January 2009). "The Germans Are Coming". Haaretz.
- Review of Fateful Choices by Gerhard Weinberg
Kershaw interviewed
- Interview with Ian Kershaw on the Penguin website
- Interview with Ian Kershaw
- Interview with Kershaw
- Interview with Ian Kershaw
By Kershaw
- Beware the Moral High Ground
- Review of Hitler's Library Archived 29 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine