Ibadi Islam
Ibadi Islam | |
---|---|
الإباضية al-ʾIbāḍiyya | |
Jerba, Tunisia | |
Type | School of Islam |
Classification | Kharijism |
Theology | Monotheism |
Language | Classical Arabic |
Territory | Majority reside in: Oman Minority reside in: Algeria (Mzab) Libya (Nafusa) Tunisia (Djerba) Tanzania (Zanzibar) |
Founder | Abdallah ibn Ibad |
Origin | c. 692 AD Basra, Umayyad Caliphate |
Members | c. 2.72 million[1] – 7 million[2] |
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The Ibadi movement or Ibadism (
Ibadism emerged around 60 years after the Islamic prophet
] although contemporary Ibāḍīs strongly object to being classified as Kharijites.[8]Ibadism is currently the second largest Muslim denomination in
History
Background
The Ibadis emerged as a moderate school of the
Following the Battle of Siffin, the Kharijites became involved in almost constant conflict with supporters of both the Alids and Umayyads. The Kharijites were organised inside major Muslim settlements, often becoming involved in local rebellions against Umayyad authorities. After the Second Fitna commenced in 680 CE, the Kharijites gradually split into four principal groups (usul al-Khawarij) of varying levels of moderation and extremism. The Ibadi school emerged as a moderate grouping in Basra,[15] based on the teachings of Abdallah ibn Ibad of the Banu Tamim,[16] who was recognised, perhaps posthumously, as imam by his followers.[17]
Kharijite split
The Ibadi school of Kharijites traces its origins to the aftermath of the
The Kharijite prisoners of Basra were freed after the city overthrew Umayyad rule in support of the rival Caliph
In Basra, a school of followers led by
Omani Imamate
In 745,
A second Ibadi state was established in Oman in 750, but fell to the newly formed
Further expansion
Ibadi missionary activity was met with considerable success in North Africa.
By the year 900, Ibadism had spread to
Views
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Including:
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Ibadis state that their school predates mainstream Islamic schools and some western writers agree. In particular, Donald Hawley's view was that Ibadism should be considered an early and highly orthodox interpretation of Islam.[23]
Ibadi imamate and political theory
Unlike the Sunni theory of the
Contemporary Ibadis uphold four "states of the religion" (masālik ad-dīn), which are four different types of imams each appropriate to certain contexts.
The second state, that of the imām al-shārī "Imam of exchange", are Ibadi imams who "exchange" their lives in the
You go out to fight in the way of God desiring His pleasure, not wanting anything of the goods of the present world, nor have you any desire for it, nor will you return to it. You are the ascetic and the hater of this life, desirous of the world to come, trying with all in your power to obtain it: going out to be killed and for nothing else. So know that you are [already] killed and have no return to this life; you are going forward and will not turn away from righteousness till you come to God. If such is your concern, go back and finish up your needs and wishes for this life, pay your debts, purchase yourself, take leave of your family and tell them that you will never return to them.[42]
The third state, that of the imām al-zuhūr "Imam of glory", are imams as active rulers of an Ibadi state. The first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar are considered ideal models of the imām al-zuhūr. A ruling imam who sins must be removed from power; the Ibadi model for this is the assassination of the third caliph Uthman and the Kharijite revolt against Ali, both actions being viewed as legitimate resistance to a sinful ruler.[43]
Finally, the state of the imām al-difā' "imam of defense" involves appointing an imam for a predetermined period of time when the Ibadi community is under foreign attack. He is removed once the threat has been defeated.[36]
Views on other denominations
Ibadis believe that all who profess the belief in oneness of God and belief in the prophethood of Muhammad as the last messenger are members of the Islamic community. It is the duty of Ibadis to correct those who differ with them in their beliefs. Only the righteous Ibadis, referred to as the ahl al-istiqāmah "people of uprightness", are worthy of being called "
Classical Ibadi theologians have stated that only the ahl al-istiqāmah will go to paradise, and that all sinning Ibadis as well as all non-Ibadis will burn in hell forever. Ibadis traditionally reject Sunni beliefs that all Muslims in hell (or all Monotheists generally) will eventually enter paradise, and hold that hell is eternal and inescapable for all humans who were not righteous Ibadis in life.[45]
The notions of
Some have characterised the works of some Ibadi scholars as being particularly anti-Shi'ite in nature,[48] and some state that Ibadi scholars, like al-Warjalani, held Nasibi views.[49]
Ibadi beliefs remain understudied by outsiders, both non-Muslim and other Muslim.[8] Ibadis have stated that whilst they read the works of both Sunnis and Shias, the learned scholars of those two sects never read Ibadi works and often repeat myths and false information when they address the topic of Ibadism without performing proper research.[50]
Theological viewpoints
The development of
In terms of
- Human knowledge of God is innate through the use of reason, rather than being learned. Therefore, a Quranic verse that appears to contradict with human reason must be metaphorically reinterpreted in the light of reason rather than being taken as fact. It is forbidden to decide matters of religious belief by taqlid, or deference to a clerical or otherwise human authority. This view is generally held among Sunni Muslims too[54]
- The attributes of God are not distinct from his essence. Mercy, power, wisdom, and other divine attributes are merely different ways to describe the single unitary essence of God, rather than independent attributes and qualities that God possesses.[55]
- Some Ibadis believe that the Quran was created by God at a certain point in time. While these Ibadis uphold the fact that "essential speech" is a way to describe his essence, they do not believe that the Quran is identical to this essence. To them, the Quran is simply a created indicator of his essence. This is in contrast to the Sunnis who believe that the Quran has always existed (it is uncreated).[56] However historically earlier Ibadis believed that neither is the Qur'an created nor uncreated, and amongst contemporary Omani Ibadis some hold the Sunni position.[57][58]
- Like
But unlike the Mu'tazila, Ibadis follow the
Ibadi jurisprudence
The
Ibadis believe that the stage of the imām al-kitmān corresponds to Muhammad's life in Mecca before the
Like the Shi'a but not the Sunni, they do not allow a couple who has committed
During the Ramadan fast, Ibadis require ghusl or full-body ablution to be undertaken prior to the beginning of the fast on that day if it is necessitated, otherwise the fast for that day is invalid. They hold that committing grave sins is a form of breaking the fast. When making up for missed days of fasting after Ramadan has ended, the Ibadis believe that the atonement fast must be consecutive, whereas both Sunnis and Shi'as believe that Muslims may atone for missed days by fasting for the required amount at any time, whether consecutive or nonconsecutive.[64]
Like the Shi'a and some
Ibadi hadith
The primary Ibadi collection of hadiths, or traditions and sayings attributed to the prophet Muhammad, is the twelfth-century Tartīb al-Musnad, comprising 1,005 hadiths.[65]: 231 The Tartīb is divided into four books. The first two books are muttaṣil narrations by Jabir ibn Zayd, a student of Muhammad's widow Aisha. The third book includes hadith transmitted by the eighth-century Kharijite scholar al-Rabi' bin Habib Al-Farahidi as preserved in the Jami Sahih collection, generally also from Jabir ibn Zayd. The fourth book consists of an appendix of saying and stories from later Ibadi scholars and imams.[65]: 232–233
Most of the Ibadi hadiths have a very short
Unlike in Sunni and Shi'a Islam alike, the study of hadiths has not traditionally been very important in Ibadi Islam, especially in Oman where Sunni influence was weaker.[65]: 239
Mysticism and Sufism
Unlike traditional Sunni Islam but like the modern Salafist movement, Ibadis do not have
However, mystical devotional practices reminiscent of Sunni Sufism were traditionally practiced by some other Ibadi scholars, to whom miracles were sometimes ascribed as with Sunni Sufis. Modern Ibadis disagree on the appropriateness of these practices within the Ibadi creed, with some considering them an undesirable non-Ibadi influence on the faith while others continue to practice and teach them.[68]
Views on early Islamic history
Ibadis agree with
In their belief, the next legitimate caliph and first Ibadi imam was
Wahbi school
The Wahbi is considered to be the most mainstream of the schools of thought within Ibadism.[72] The main reason the Wahbi strain has come to dominate within Ibadism is that most textual references that have been preserved can be attributed to Wahbi affiliated scholars.[73]
Texts
The dating of early writings such as kutub al-rudud and siras (letters) written by Ibadis has led some analysts such as Salim al-Harithi to claim Ibadism as the oldest sect within Islam. However others suggest Ibadism only took on characteristics of a sect and a full-fledged madhab during the demise of the Rustamid Imamate.[72]
Terminology
The term Wahbi is chiefly derived as an eponymous intimation to the teachings of Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi. Although the term Wahbi was initially considered superfluous as Ibadism was largely homogenous, its usage increased upon the advent of the Nukkari secession in order to differentiate the Wahbis from the off-shoot Ibadis. The most common epithet Wahbi Ibadi clerics enjoined their adherents to apply to themselves is the term ahl al-istiqama meaning those on the straight path. They rejected the usage of ahl al -sunnah as early usage assigned the term sunnah as the practise of Muawiyah cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib from the pulpits, although during the Umayyad era, this meaning changed.[72]
Demographics
Oman is the country with the most Ibadis;[74] Ibadis and Sunnis make up equal numbers of Muslims (45% each), while Shia about 5%, in the population in Oman.[74] There are roughly 2.72 million Ibadis worldwide, of which 250,000 live outside Oman.[75]
Historically, the early medieval
The mainstream branch of Ibadism is Wahbi, although others include notable modern ones such as
Notable Ibadis
Individuals
- Sulaiman al-Barouni, wali of Tripolitania.
- Ahmed bin Hamad al-Khalili, current Grand Mufti of Oman.
- Qaboos bin Said al Said, former Sultanof Oman and its dependencies.
- Nūr al-Dīn al-Sālimī, scholar
- Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar, last reigning Sultan of Zanzibar
- Nouri Abusahmain, president of the former General National Congress and former Libyan head of state.
- Moufdi Zakaria, writer and nationalist, author of Kassaman the Algerian national anthem
- Ghalib Alhinai, last elected Imam (ruler) of the Imamate of Oman.
- 'Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi, early Khārijite leader.
- Abd-Allah ibn Ibadh, a Tabi'i, (jurist).
- Jābir ibn Zayd, theologian from the second generation of Islam, who led the Ibadis after Abd-Allah ibn Ibadh died.
- Abu Yazid led a 10th century north African rebellion against the Fatimid Caliphate.
- Hunaina al-Mughairy ambassador of Oman to the United States.
- Haitham bin Tariq, Sultan of Oman.
Dynasties
- Rustamid dynasty: 776–909
- Nabhani dynasty: 1154–1624
- Yaruba dynasty: 1624–1742
- List of Sultans of Zanzibar: 1856-1964
- Al Said: 1744–present
See also
- Outline of Islam
- Glossary of Islam
- Index of Islam-related articles
- Ghardaïa
- Islam in Oman
- Sultanate of Zanzibar
References
Citations
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- ^ "7 ملايين أباضي .. ما هو أسلوبهم في الدين والحياة والزواج؟". العربية (in Arabic). 2005-06-02. Retrieved 2022-10-16.
- ^ Vallely, Paul (19 February 2014). "Schism between Sunni and Shia has been poisoning Islam for 1,400 years – and it's getting worse". The Independent.
- ^ Library, International and Area Studies. "LibGuides: Ibadi Islam: History". guides.library.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2021-08-03.
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- ^ Hoffman 2012.
- ^ a b Hoffman 2012, p. 3.
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- ^ a b c d e Donald Hawley, Oman, p. 200.
- ^ Gaiser 2021.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, p. 11.
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- ^ Madelung 1981, p. 301.
- ^ a b Wilferd Madelung, "ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ibāḍ and the Origins of the Ibāḍiyya", in Barbara Michalek-Pikulska and Andrzej Pikulski (eds.), Authority, Privacy and Public Order in Islam: Proceedings of the 22nd Congress of L'Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants (Leuven: Peeters, 2006), pp. 51–58.
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- ^ Hoffman 2012, pp. 12–13.
- ^ a b Donald Hawley, Oman, pg. 199.
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- ^ Wellhausen 1901, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Lewicki 1971, p. 652.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, pp. 14–16.
- ^ a b c Lewicki 1971, p. 653.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Lewicki 1971, pp. 653, 656–657.
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- ^ a b Hoffman 2012, p. 28.
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- ^ a b O'Fahey, R.S. and Vikør, K.S., 1996. A Zanzibari waqf of books: the library of the Mundhirī family. Sudanic Africa, 7, pp.5-23.
- ^ Husayn, N., 2021. Opposing the Imam: The Legacy of the Nawasib in Islamic Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 89-111
- ^ Hoffman 2012, p. 4.
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- ^ Hoffman 2012, p. 34.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, p. 36–37.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, pp. 40–41.
- ^ a b al-Shueili, Sulayman. "The Ibad. ı Approach to the Methodology of Qur’anic Exegesis." The Muslim World 105 (2015).
- ^ أحمد بن حمد بن سليمان الخليلي، الحق الدامغ 84 ـ 85 (بتصرف)، مطابع النهضة 1409هـجرية،
- ^ a b Hoffman 2012, p. 36.
- ^ Muhammad ibn Adam Al-Kawthari (August 23, 2005). "Seeing God in dreams, waking, and the afterlife". Archived from the original on February 18, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2011.
- ^ Hoffman 2012, pp. 34–35.
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- ^ a b c Hoffman 2012, p. 19.
- ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2006). Rebellion and Violence in Islamic Law. p. 308.
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- ^ Hoffman, Valerie J. "The articulation of Ibadi identity in modern Oman and Zanzibar
- ^ "The Jerba Libraries Project: Preserving Endangered Manuscripts and Early Arabic Print Materials in Private Libraries in Jerba, Tunisia". Endangered Archives Programme. 2019-08-09. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
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General and cited references
- Gaiser, Adam B. (2010). Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers: The Origin and Elaboration of the Ibadi Imamate Traditions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973893-9.
- Gaiser, Adam (2021). "Ibāḍiyya". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
- Hoffman, Valerie Jon (2012). The Essentials of Ibadi Islam. ISBN 9780815650843.
- OCLC 453206240.
Further reading
- Pessah Shinar, Modern Islam in the Maghrib, Jerusalem: The Max Schloessinger Memorial Foundation, 2004. A collection of papers (some previously unpublished) dealing with Islam in the Maghreb, practices, and beliefs.